Meta Data

Draft:

Revision of previous policy?:

Draft Year:

2015

Effective Start Year:

2016

Effective End Year:

2025

Scope:

National

Document Type:

Plan/Strategy

Economic Sector:

Energy, Power, Industry, Transport, Building, Multi-Sector, Other

Energy Types:

Power, Renewable, Hydropower, Other

Issued by:

Climate Change Secretariat Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment

Source:

UNFCCC

File:

National Adaptation Plan for Climate Change Impacts in Sri Lanka 2016-2025

Overall Summary:

Sri Lanka, a tropical nation, is highly vulnerable to impacts of climate change. The national level actions have to play a critical role while international cooperation is also important. Recognizing this responsibility, the Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL) has launched a national initiative for facing the threat of climate change. This plan was prepared in line with the broad set of guidelines set forth by UNFCCC for development of national adaptation plans (NAPs) (UNCCS, 2012). The NAP process of UNFCCC is a generalized process consisting of four stages that could be customized according to specific situations in respective countries.

Efficiency

EE action plans:

Improve the efficiency of transmission and distribution systems to minimize losses.

Renewable Energy

RE action plans:

Minimize the fluctuation hydropower generation potential through improvements in system management.---Diversify the energy mix with increased share of renewable energy. ---Explore alternatives for maximizing the use of hydro power facilities: e.g. pumped storage hydroelectricity.

Environment

Energy environmental priorities:

Establish an early warning and hazard communication system for commuters and managers of energy, transport and industrial facilities.---Minimize the impacts of rising temperature and periodic scarcity of water on energy, industry and transportation.---Promote climate proof infrastructure and building design practices - identify design improvements for transport, energy and industry sector.

Energy Supply and Infrastructure

Energy mix:

Diversify the energy mix with increased share of renewable energy.

Governance

Energy management principles:

Minimize the fluctuation hydropower generation potential through improvements in system management.

Technology

Clean energy technology deployment:

Conduct research studies on impacts of climate change on energy, transportation and industry - Explore and assess the potential for establishing pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH) plants and conversion/ retrofitting of existing facilities to PSH plants.

R&D pollution abatement:

Conduct research studies on climate change impacts on industry, energy and transportation

Full Document Text

National Adaptation Plan for Climate

Change Impacts in Sri Lanka

2016 to 2025

Climate Change Secretariat

Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment 2015

Executive Summary

Climate change impacts are looming over every conceivable level—global, regional, national and local levels—that calls for multi-level action. Sri Lanka, a tropical nation, is highly vulnerable to impacts of climate change. The national level actions have to play a critical role while international cooperation is also important. Recognizing this responsibility, the Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL) has launched a national initiative for facing the threat of climate change. The Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment plays the leadership role here. The Ministry’s activities are spearheaded by the Climate Change Secretariat (CCS) which is also the National Designated Entity (NDE) for United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC). Two major milestones of this national initiative are the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for Sri Lanka prepared in 2010 and the National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) formulated in 2012. The National Adaptation Plan for Climate Change Impacts in Sri Lanka (NAP) presented in this document is the next logical step of this initiative.

This plan was prepared in line with the broad set of guidelines set forth by UNFCCC for development of national adaptation plans (NAPs) (UNCCS, 2012). The NAP process of UNFCCC is a generalized process consisting of four stages that could be customized according to specific situations in respective countries. Accordingly, Sri Lanka has already started the NAP process and reached some important milestones. Given the situation that many groundwork requirements have already been fulfilled, NAP process in Sri Lanka starts from the second stage―i.e. making preparatory elements—which is the real planning stage of NAP process. Other than setting the broad framework, however UNFCCC guidelines remain open for country- driven customized methodologies of planning. Accordingly, a country-specific NAP methodology was developed for Sri Lanka based on broad UNFCCC guidelines.

The NAP covers adaptation needs at two levels, namely; adaptation needs of key vulnerable sectors and cross-cutting national needs of adaptation. Nine vulnerable sectors were identified in the consultation process and they include; food security, water, coastal sector, health, human settlements, bio-diversity, tourism and recreation, export development and industry- energy-transportation. The consultation process adopted in the preparation of the plan helped to identify adaptation needs of each vulnerable sector based on logical criteria involving projections, vulnerabilities, impacts and socio-economic outcomes. The plan goes on to identify adaptation options that can fulfill these needs and actions necessary to achieve these options with responsible agencies and key performance indicators. They together constitute the sectoral action plans for each vulnerable sector. The NAP also include interventions necessary for fulfilling cross-cutting national needs of adaptation identified on the basis of analyzing common sectoral needs and opinions of key stakeholders. The plan also proposes an institutional and coordination mechanism along with implementation and resource mobilization strategies for successful implementation on a realistic timeframe.

Executive Summary................................................................................................................... 3

Table of Contents....................................................................................................................... 4

List of Tables.............................................................................................................................. 6

List of Figures............................................................................................................................. 7

List of Boxes............................................................................................................................... 7

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms............................................................................................ 8

Introduction.................................................................................................................... 11

1.1. NAP Process in Sri Lanka............................................................................................. 13

1.2. Organization of Chapters............................................................................................ 16

Climate Change in Sri Lanka: An Overview......................................................................... 18

2.1. Climate in Sri Lanka................................................................................................... 18

2.2. Observed and Projected Changes in Climate in Sri Lanka: An Overview......................... 22

2.3. An Overall Assessment................................................................................................ 22

Scope of the Plan and Key Stakeholders............................................................................ 24

3.1. Adaptation Needs of Key Sectors................................................................................. 24

3.2. Cross-cutting National Needs of Adaptation................................................................ 26

3.3. Connectivity to and Consistency with other National Policies and Plans....................... 27

3.3.1. Connectivity to National Climate Change Policy and the Strategy............................. 27

3.3.2. Connectivity to other National Policies and Plans.................................................... 29

3.4. Key Stakeholders of the Plan................................................................................... 30

Planning Concepts and Approaches.................................................................................. 32
Planning Methodology..................................................................................................... 34

5.1. Methodology of the Plan............................................................................................ 34

Projections, Physical Effects, Impacts, Adaptation Needs and Adaptation Options.............. 36
The Plan........................................................................................................................... 38

7.1. Goals........................................................................................................................ 38

7.2. Objectives................................................................................................................. 38

7.3. Time Plan of Actions.................................................................................................. 39

7.4. Summary of the Overall Plan...................................................................................... 39

7.5. Sectoral Adaptation Plans.......................................................................................... 43

7.6. Plan for Cross-cutting National Needs of Adaptation.................................................... 86

Institutional and Coordination Mechanism....................................................................... 93

8.1. National Focal Point (NFP)......................................................................................... 93

8.2. Sectoral Climate Cells (SCC) for Sectors....................................................................... 93

8.3. National Working Group for Cross-cutting National Adaptation Needs (NWG).............. 94

8.4. Regional Climate Cells (RCCs)...................................................................................... 95

8.5. CSO Forum................................................................................................................ 95

8.6. National Adaptation Committee (NAC)....................................................................... 95

8.7. National Steering Committee (NSC)............................................................................ 95

Implementation Strategy................................................................................................. 97

9.1. Implementation of Sector Level Actions...................................................................... 97

9.2. Implementation of National Level (cross-cutting) Actions............................................ 97

9.3. Implementation of Regional Level Actions.................................................................. 97

9.4. Implementation of Community Level Actions............................................................. 98

9.5. Monitoring and Evaluation........................................................................................ 98

Resource Mobilization Mechanism................................................................................. 100

10.1. Types of Resources Needed................................................................................... 100

10.2. Sources of Financing............................................................................................ 100

References..................................................................................................................... 102
Appendices.................................................................................................................... 106

List of Tables

Table 1:	Key sectors and priority areas
Table 2:	Cross-cutting national issues and areas of interest
Table 3:	Projections and their physical effects
Table 4:	Time horizons of the plan
Table 5:	An overall summary of the plan - priority actions
Table 6:	Sector action plan – Food security
Table 7:	Sector action plan – Water
Table 8:	Sector action plan – Coastal sector
Table 9:	Sector action plan – Health
Table 10:	Sector action plan – Human settlements
Table 11:	Sector action plan – Biodiversity
Table 12:	Sector action plan – Tourism and recreation
Table 13:	Sector action plan – Export development
Table 14:	Sector action plan – Industry, energy and transportation
Table 15:	Action plan – Cross-cutting needs of adaptation
Table A-1:	Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Food security
Table A-2:	Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Water
Table A-3:	Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Coastal
Table A-4:	Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Health
Table A-5:	Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Human settlements
Table A-6:	Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Bio-diversity
Table A-7:	Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Tourism and recreation
Table A-8:	Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Export development
Table A-9:	Projections, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Industry, energy Physical effects and transportation

List of Figures

Figure 1: The UNFCCC’s NAP Process

Figure 2: Agro-climatic zones of Sri Lanka

Figure 3: Structure of the institutional and coordination mechanism

List of Boxes

Box 1: UNFCCC’s generalized process for preparation of NAPS

Box 2: Observed changes of climate in Sri Lanka - Some scientific evidence

Box 3: Projected Changes in Climate in Sri Lanka: Some scientific Evidence

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

AchFoU	Architecture Faculties of Universities
AFoU	Agriculture Faculties of Universities
AR5	The Fifth Assessment Report
CAC	Climate adaptation cells
CARP	Sri Lanka Council for Agricultural Research Policy
CCD	Department of Coast Conservation
CCS	Climate Change Secretariat
CDA	Coconut Development Authority
CEA	Central Environmental Authority
CEB	Ceylon Electricity Board
CHPB	Centre for Housing Planning and Building
CIP	Climate Information Products
CRI	Coconut Research Institute
CSO	Civil Society Organizations
DAD	Department of Agrarian Development
DAPH	Department of Animal Production and Health
DCD	Department of Cooperatives Development
DFAR	Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
DFC	Department of Food Commissioner's
DM	Department of Meteorology
DMC	Disaster Management Centre
DNBG	Department of National Botanical Gardens
DNZG	Department of National Zoological Gardens
DOA	Department of Agriculture
DOArch	Department of Archeology
DOI	Department of irrigation
DWLC	Department of Wild Life Conservation
EFoU	Engineering Faculties of Universities
FD	Forest Department
FIM	First Inter-Monsoon
GOSL	The Government of Sri Lanka
ICTAD	The Institute for Construction Training and Development
IDB	Industrial Development Board
IPCC	Inter-governmental Panel for Climate Change
ITI	Industrial Technology Institute

IUCN	International Union for Conservation of Nature
IWMI	International Water Management Institute
LAs	Local Authorities
MASL	Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka
MEPA	Marine Environmental Protection Authority
MMDE	Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment
MODM	Ministry of Disaster Management
MOE	Ministry of Education
MOH	Ministry of Health
MOPI	Ministry of Plantation Industries
MOT	Ministry of Transport
MRI	Medical Research Institute
MSL	Mean Sea Level
NABRO	National Building Research Organization
NAF	National Adaptation Fund
NAP	National Adaptation Plan
NAQDA	National Aquatic Development Authority
NARA	National Aquatic Resources Research and Development Agency
NBRO	National Building Research Organization
NCCAS	National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy
NCCP	National Climate Change Policy
NCPC	National Cleaner Production Centre
NEM	Northeast monsoon
NERD	National Engineering Research and Development Center
NGOs	Non-Governmental Organization
NIPM	National Institute of Plantation Management
NLDB	National Livestock Development Board
NPPD	National Physical Planning Development
NRC	National Research Council of Sri Lanka
NSF	National Science Foundation
NWG	National Working Group
NWSDB	National Water Supply and Drainage Board
OFC	Other Food Crops
PCs	Provincial Councils
PMB	Paddy Marketing Board
RDA	Road Development Authority
RDD	Department of Rubber Development
RPTAs	Road Passenger Transport Authority
RRI	Rubber Research Institute

SD	Survey Department
SEA	Sri Lanka Sustainable Energy Authority
SFoU	Science Faculties of Universities
SIM	Second Inter-Monsoon
SLCC	Sri Lanka Cashew Corporation
SLR	Sri Lanka Railways
SLTDA	Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority
SLTPB	Sri Lanka Tourism Promotion Bureau
SRI	Sugarcane Research Institute
SVP	Sector Vulnerability Profile
SWM	Southwest monsoon
TBSL	Tourism Board of Sri Lanka
TFoU	Tourism Faculties of Universities
THASL	The Hotel Association of Sri Lanka
TNA	Technology Needs Assessment
TRI	Tea Research Institute
UDA	Urban Development Authority
UNFCCC	United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change
VRI	The Veterinary Research Institute
WMO	World Meteorological Organization
WRB	Water Resources Board

1. Introduction

The Fifth Assessment Report (AR5) of Inter-governmental Panel for Climate Change (IPCC) emphasizes that the current as well as future generations will have to face multiple impacts of climate change with far reaching consequences. According to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), thirteen out of fourteen hottest years were reported since 2000 and each successive decade since 1980 has been warmer than the previous one, having 2001-2010 recorded as the warmest decade ever (WMO 2014). Scientific studies have shown that mean sea-level (MSL) has increased by 0.19 metres during the last century and it is projected to rise even faster during this century (IPCC, 2014). Thermal expansion of oceans and melting of glaciers due to global warming are mainly responsible for this. Reports also suggest that seasonal melting of major ice sheets and glaciers have accelerated during the recent past and significant areas of snow cover have permanently disappeared (IPCC, 2014). These changes in global climate could lead to create impacts with negative physical and socio-economic outcomes around the world.

Sri Lanka, a tropical nation, is highly vulnerable to impacts of climate change. As a small island in the Indian Ocean, the coastal region of Sri Lanka is susceptible to changes in sea level. The 2004 tsunami has indicated that low-lying plains in the coastal zone will be vulnerable to any future rise in sea level. Important sectors of the economy such as tourism and fisheries could be affected due to impacts of sea level rise (ADB, 2014; Ministry of Environment, 2011; Senaratne et al., 2009). A significant population of the country is dependent on livelihoods connected to agriculture. Studies show that food security of the nation can be adversely affected due to impacts of climate change (De Silva, 2008 and 2013; Punyawardena, 2007). Besides, a substantial share of foreign income is earned through export crops which are highly sensitive to fluctuations of weather (Wijeratne et al., 2009; Nissanka et al., 2013; Ranasinghe, 2013). Emerging evidence from various sources suggest that climate change could alter natural systems connected to water cycle, eco systems and bio-diversity of the country (Ministry of Environment, 2011 ; Eriyagama et al., 2010). This could lead to decline of various ecosystem services that are indispensable for the welfare of human population. Impacts of climate change appear to have significant repercussions on health of the citizens and human settlements of the country too (Ministry of Environment, 2010 a & b).Overall, Impacts of climate change are widespread and they are likely to create negative socio-economic outcomes on many sectors in Sri Lanka.

Adaptation is the key strategy available for facing the impacts of climate change. Climate adaptation is widely defined as actions taken to moderate, cope or take advantage of experienced or anticipated changes in climate (IPCC, 2007). However, scholars who look from the social perspective suggest that the essence of the concept of adaptation is adjustment of behaviour (Adger et al., 2009; Smit et al., 2000; Stakhiv, 1993; Smith et al., 1996). Hence, more precisely, climate adaptation can be defined as ‘adjustments in behaviour of natural and social systems and their members in response to actual or expected variability or change in climate in order to moderate and cope with harmful impacts or to take advantage of opportunities’.

Being a phenomenon with impacts looming over every conceivable level; global, regional, national and local; climate change calls for multi-level actions of adaptation. The national level actions have to play a critical role while international cooperation is also important. At the national level, the government has the responsibility of coordinating adaptation decisions taken at international and sub-national levels as well.

Recognizing this responsibility, the Government of Sri Lanka (GOSL) has launched a national initiative for facing the threat of climate change. The Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment (MMDE) plays the leadership role here. The Ministry’s activities are spearheaded by the Climate Change Secretariat (CCS) which is also the National Designated Entity (NDE) for United Nations Framework Convention for Climate Change (UNFCCC). Two major milestones of this national initiative are the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for Sri Lanka prepared in 2010 and the National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) formulated in 2012. The National Climate Change Adaptation Plan (NAP) presented in this document is the next logical step of this initiative.

Sri Lanka’s capacity for successful adaptation to climate change impacts depends on two major factors—vulnerability and adaptive capacity of its people. Sector vulnerability profiles prepared for agriculture, health, water, biodiversity and human settlements have identified many geographical locations and economic sectors that are vulnerable to impacts of climate change (Climate Change Secretariat, 2009). Around 28 per cent of the country’s population depends on livelihoods related to agriculture which are highly dependent on climatic conditions. Impacts on agriculture will place not only livelihoods of farmers but the food security of the entire population under risk. Poverty is a major vulnerability enhancing factor. Even though Sri Lanka has been successful in reducing the poverty head count ratio to a single digit, studies on multi- dimensional poverty indicate that people who are marginally over the poverty line could fall below the line easily due to various livelihood shocks. Hence, climate change impacts have the potential to reverse the country’s achievements in poverty alleviation unless countered through appropriate measures of adaptation.

Adaptive capacity implies the ability of people and socio-ecological systems to respond to the impacts of climate change with minimum negative outcomes. Adaptive capacity is determined by several factors that include livelihood assets, knowledge and skills, technology, institutions and information. Unlike in the case of vulnerability, assessments of adaptive capacity are rare in Sri Lanka. However, it is not hard to identify that currently there are many gaps in institutions, technology, knowledge and information concerning impacts of climate change is concerned. Hence, successful adaptation requires reducing factors leading to vulnerability while enhancing the adaptive capacity of people, which are interconnected goals.

1.1. NAP Process in Sri Lanka

This plan was prepared in line with the broad set of guidelines set forth by UNFCCC for development of national adaptation plans (NAPs) (UNCCS, 2012). The UNFCCC guidelines identify preparing the NAPs as a process to develop the capacity and knowledge of all decision- makers at national, sub-national (e.g. sectoral, provincial) and supra-national levels. The NAP process of UNFCCC is a generalized process consisting of four stages that could be customized according to specific situations in respective countries (Box 1). The four stages are: laying the groundwork and identifying gaps; making preparatory elements; implementation strategies, and; reporting, monitoring and reviewing. Of them, the third and fourth are post-plan stages. It is useful to review Sri Lanka’s situation with respect to this four stage process.

Initiating and launching NAP process: Sri Lanka has already started the NAP process and reached two important milestones, namely: the National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) and the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for Sri Lanka (NCCAS): 2011 to 2016 (NCCAS,5 2011-16). These important policy documents elaborate the national vision and strategic priorities with regard to facing the threat of climate change. They also provide a source of legitimacy and authority required for NAP. In addition, CCS has established its position as the key national agency with specialized mandate for addressing national issues of climate change. These factors can be considered as positive features and strengths as far as NAP is concerned.

Box 1: UNFCCC’s Generalized Process for Preparation of NAPS

UNFCCC identified a generalized process consisting of four stages that could be customized according to specific situations in respective countries. The four stages are: laying the groundwork and identifying gaps; making preparatory elements; implementation strategies, and; reporting, monitoring and reviewing.

Laying the groundwork: This is a pre-planning stage of NAP process. It covers three major areas: initiating and launching NAP process; stocktaking and synthesizing available information; identifying vulnerabilities and, analysis of major gaps and potential barriers.

Making preparatory elements: This is the real planning stage of the NAP process. UNFCCC has not identified a specific methodological procedure for preparation of the plan but only an overall framework (Figure 1). Planners have to identify the suitable methodological framework for respective countries considering the ground realities in respective countries. However, UNFCCC emphasizes the necessity of extensive consultation of relevant stakeholders in the planning stage.

Implementation strategy: The third stage of the NAP process is the implementation stage. This is a post-planning stage that deals with implementing selected interventions in the action plan. However, essential aspects of implementation strategy should be laid down in the plan itself with necessary flexibility for making adjustments to changes in conditions that may come in the future.

Reporting monitoring and reviewing: The final stage of the NAP process is reporting, monitoring and reviewing. It deals with monitoring the implementation of the plan. This is also a post-planning stage. However, like implementation strategies, there should be built-in mechanisms for reporting, monitoring and reviewing progress of the plan. These mechanisms should help reviewing the progress and iteratively updating the plan according to the changing conditions.

Stocktaking, synthesizing information and identifying vulnerabilities: The Ministry of Environment and CCS have already published two National Communications of Climate Change in 2001 and 2011 that reviewed the existing information. In addition, Sector Vulnerability Profiles (SVPs) have been developed for 5 sectors. The Ministry has also completed technology needs assessment (TNA) for adaptation and mitigation which identified priority technologies for five adaptation sectors and three mitigation sectors. Several national level conferences organized by various agencies have helped to exchange findings of research conducted by institutions and individual researchers. These developments have established a solid foundation for the NAP process.

Major gaps and barriers: Despite positive factors, however, there are also significant gaps in certain areas. Review of existing literature helped to identify a few major gaps that need to be addressed for successful adaptation in Sri Lanka. They are: information gaps, technological gaps, policy and governance gaps, institutional and coordination gaps and resource mobilization gaps.

Information gaps: Major improvements in generation of climate information products (CIPs) are necessary to provide effective guidance to adaptive actions of different stakeholders.

Technological gaps: Despite that TNA has been conducted for five important sectors of adaptation, technological gaps in many areas remain largely unexplored.

Policy and governance gaps: Efforts initiated by the Ministry of Environment and CCS have helped to fulfill some policy gaps at the national level. NCCP has established the national vision whereas NCCAS: 2011-16 identified strategic priorities. However, climate change is a complex problem that cannot be governed through efforts of a single ministry or a line agency alone. Hence, there are policy and governance issues that need to be addressed through NAP process.

Institutional and coordination gaps: Currently, many activities pertaining to adaptation are undertaken in an ad-hoc manner without proper coordination. This cannot be considered a favourable situation and therefore appropriate institutional mechanism for coordination of different actors is necessary.

Resource mobilization gaps: The government is burdened with numerous fiscal and monetary difficulties to find extra resources for climate adaptation interventions. Therefore, conventional channels of public finance cannot be relied upon to meet all resource needs of adaptation and innovative ways of resource mobilization should be identified.

These gaps act as barriers to successful adaptation thereby leading to reduce the adaptive capacity and increase the vulnerability of individual citizens as well as the nation as a whole. The major aim of NAP is overcoming these gaps so that the adaptive capacity of all stakeholders will be enhanced while the vulnerability will be reduced.

Given the situation that many groundwork requirements have already been fulfilled, NAP process in Sri Lanka can start from the second stage―i.e. by making preparatory elements. This can be considered as the real planning stage of NAP. Essential preparatory elements of NAP process include: analysing current climate and future climate scenarios; assessing vulnerabilities; identifying, reviewing and appraising adaptation options and, compiling and communicating national adaptation plan (Figure 1).

Figure 1: NAP Process

The UNFCCC guidelines do not offer a detailed planning methodology other than the broad framework shown above. It is understood that each country faces different circumstances and a rigid prescriptive methodology would not generate desired results. Instead it remains open for country-driven customized methodologies of NAP preparation with a view to ‘integrating adaptation into relevant social, economic and environmental policies and actions...’ (UNFCCC, 2012). The NAP methodology of Sri Lanka was developed according to these broad guidelines of UNFCC and is discussed in Chapter 5 of this plan.

1.2. Organization of Chapters

Chapter 2 presents an overview of climate change in Sri Lanka. It discusses the average pattern of climate in Sri Lanka together with observed changes in the recent past and projected changes for the future. Chapter 3 describes the scope of the plan together with key stakeholders and the plan’s connectivity to other relevant national policies and plans. Planning concepts and approaches that guided the plan are presented in Chapter 4. The detailed methodology of the plan is described in Chapter 5. The methodology of the plan has a logical structure that begins from the projections on changes in key climatic parameters. Physical effects of projected changes give rise to physical hazards and vulnerabilities on different sectors. The impacts of these hazards and vulnerabilities determine the adaptation needs of respective sectors and feasible adaptation options to cope with impacts that provided the basis of the action plan. This logical structure of the plan is explained in Chapter 6 before the presentation of The Plan in Chapter 7. Chapter 7 presents the plan in details with summary of priority actions followed by sector specific actions plans for 9 different sectors and the plan for cross cutting adaptation needs. Chapter 8 presents institutional and coordination mechanism followed by descriptions of the implementation strategy and the resource mobilization mechanism of the plan in Chapters 9 and 10, respectively.

2. Climate Change in Sri Lanka: An Overview

Successful adaptation against climate change is necessarily an information-driven process. Therefore, the logical starting point of preparing the NAP is reviewing information on the existing situation of climate change in Sri Lanka. This section provides a brief overview of the climate in Sri Lanka, major changes that have been observed in the system and changes projected to take place in future.

2.1. Climate in Sri Lanka

The review of general pattern of climate described in this section is based on Basnayake (2007), Chandrapala (2007) and Ariyasinghe (2007). Being a small tropical island, there is no significant annual variation in temperature in Sri Lanka due to latitude. However, significant regional variation in temperature could be observed due to altitude. In lowland areas, average annual temperature usually varies around 26.5 – 28.5 C and it falls quickly as altitude increases (e.g. Nuwara Eliya – 15.9 C at 1800 mean sea level).

In the absence of high seasonal variation in temperature, the average pattern of climate in a given local area is determined mainly by the variations in precipitation. Sri Lanka’s mean annual rainfall is around 1850 mm (ranging from 900 mm to 5000 mm). There are three major sources of rainfall in the country, namely; monsoonal, convectional and depressional. Based on the variation in precipitation, Sri Lanka’s climate is generally divided into four seasons:

First inter-monsoon season (FIM): March –April (268 mm, 14%)
Southwest monsoon season (SWM): May –September (556 mm, 30%)
Second inter-monsoon season (SIM): October-November (558 mm, 30%)
Northeast monsoon season (NEM): December- February (479 mm, 26%)

The first inter-monsoon (FIM) rains are usually experienced around March-April period. During the FIM, southwestern quarter and certain parts of central highlands receive over 250 mm rainfall. Most other parts get rainfall around 100 -250 mm. Hazardous lightning associated with thunderstorms is a frequent incident and sometimes intensive rainfall may give rise to flash floods.

The country experiences the Southwestern monsoon (SWM) around May-September. During the SWM season, mid-elevation western slopes of central highlands receive over 3000 mm rainfall and southwestern coastal belt around 1000-1600 mm. Higher elevations in central highlands get rainfall around 800 mm. Long lasting monsoon rains may result in floods in low- lying areas and landslides in hilly areas. Rains can be experienced at any time during the day and night.

Box 2: Observed Changes of Climate in Sri Lanka - Some Scientific Evidence

Temperature: Analysis of past data suggests that atmospheric temperature is gradually rising almost everywhere in the country (Chandrapala 2007a; Costa 2008; Eriyagama et al., 2010; Fernando and Chandrapala, 2007, Nissanka et al., 2011). Varied rates of increase in temperature have been reported from different locations and in recent years, the warming trend has become faster (Basnayake, 2007; Chandrapala, 2007; Costa, 2008). Annual mean air temperature anomalies have shown significant increasing trends in all stations during the recent decades (Basnayake, 2007). It has been reported that mean daytime maximum and mean night time minimum air temperatures also have increased (Basnayake, 2007; Zubair et al., 2005). Data indicates that increase in night time minimum air temperature contributes more to average increase in annual temperature than day time maximum air temperature (Basnayake, 2007).

Precipitation: Unlike in the case of temperature, no clear pattern or trend has been observed in precipitation. Some researchers, comparing the mean annual precipitation of recent and earlier periods, suggest that average rainfall is showing a decreasing trend (Basnayake, 2007; Chandrapala, 2007b; Costa 2008; Jayatillake et al., 2005). However, there is no consensus on this fact among researchers and opposing trends can be observed in different locations. Punyawardena et al., (2013a) observed that heavy rainfall events have become more frequent in central highlands during the recent period. However, many researchers seem to agree that the variability of rainfall has increased over time, especially in Yala season (Chandrapala 2007b; Eriyagama et al. 2010; Punyawrdena et al., 2013b). Moreover, the number of consecutive dry days has increased and the consecutive wet periods have decreased (Ratnayake and Herath, 2005; Premalal, 2009). Studies also indicate that spatial distribution of rainfall appears to be changing although a distinct pattern cannot be recognized yet. Some studies suggest changes in distribution can lead to shifting of agro-ecological boundaries (Eriyagama et al., 2010; Mutuwatte, 2013).

Extreme events: The intensity and the frequency of the extreme events such as floods and droughts have increased during recent times (Imbulana et al., 2006; Ratnayake and Herath 2005). Areas of high rainfall intensities and the locations of landslides show a strong correlation (Ratnayake and Herath, 2005).

Sea level rise: Sea level rise of 1-3 mm/year is observed in the Asian region and is marginally higher than the global averages (Cruz et al., 2007). An accelerated level of sea level rise has been observed during the period of 1993-2001 (3.1mm/year) for the Asian region. However,

Second inter-monsoon season (SIM) brings rainfall around October-November period. Unlike FIM, the influence of depressions is common during SIM, the whole country experiencing strong winds with widespread rains, sometimes leading to floods and landslides. It is the season with most evenly distributed rainfall in Sri Lanka. Many areas receive over 400 mm. Slopes in southwestern quarter receive 750 -1200 mm.

Usual period of northeast monsoon season (NEM) is December-February. During this season moist wind blowing from northeast Asian landmass produces seasonal rainfall in the northern, north central and eastern parts of the country. Highest rainfall figures are recorded in north- eastern slopes of the hill country and eastern slopes of the Knuckles/Rangala range.

This general pattern of annual rainfall results in an overall mean annual rainfall of around 1850 mm that range from 900 mm to 5000 mm. Southwestern quarter of the country, especially western slopes of central highlands receive the highest rainfall (e.g. Yatiyantota, Ginigathhena, Watawala > 5000 mm). On the other hand, southeastern (Yala, Palatupana < 1000 mm) and northwestern (Mannar < 1000 mm) coastal areas receive the lowest amount of rainfall. Based on the variation in mean annual rainfall in the country, it has been divided into three major climatic zones:

Wet zone (mean annual rainfall > 2500 mm)
Intermediate zone (mean annual rainfall 1750-2500 mm)
Dry zone (mean annual rainfall <1750 mm)

These climatic zones have further been subdivided into three elevation categories (low-country - <300 m; mid-country – 300-900 m; up-country - >900 m) to cover the associated temperature variations. These divisions have given rise to 46 agro-ecological zones, a classification that provides the basis for various decisions and recommendations concerning agriculture and other sectors (Punyawardena et al., 2003). Figure 2 presents the map of agro-ecological zones in Sri Lanka.

Figure 2: Agro-Climatic Zones of Sri Lanka

Source: Natural Resources Management Centre, Department of Agriculture (2003).

2.2. Observed and Projected Changes in Climate in Sri Lanka: An Overview

Recent studies on local, regional and global climate suggest that this general pattern of climate is undergoing changes. There are two major sources of information.

Observed changes of climate: These are based on statistical analysis of historically recorded meteorological data over several years across a number of locations in the country
- Projected changes on climate: This refers to projections based on global, regional and downscaled climate models for future time periods

Academics and researchers have conducted a number of studies on trends that can be observed from analysis of past meteorological data and they indicate that Sri Lanka’s climate is changing gradually. Areas that attracted researchers’ attention most were trends in temperature, changes in precipitation patterns and observations on extreme events. Evidence suggests that atmospheric temperature is gradually rising almost everywhere in the country. A major feature of rainfall in Sri Lanka is high year to year variability. However, no distinct pattern of change has been observed. Variation of rainfall is much smaller in lowlands than highlands. A summary of findings from analysis of past data is given in Box 2.

Projected changes are likely future trends of key meteorological parameters according to projections of climate models, which are complex mathematical models. Global climate models provide limited information on a smaller country like Sri Lanka and hence model information need to be downscaled. There were a few attempts on downscaling also and a brief review of the projected changes in climate in Sri Lanka due to global warming is presented in Box 3.

2.3. An Overall Assessment

Overall, information on observed and projected changes suggests that the climate of Sri Lanka is undergoing three major types of changes.

Gradual increase in ambient air temperature
Changes in distribution pattern of rainfall
Increase in frequency and severity of extreme weather events

In addition to the above changes in atmosphere, there are associated changes in oceanic environment too, especially sea level rise, that seem to create significant impacts over Sri Lanka. Adaptation is a response strategy for overcoming the impacts of observed and projected changes in climate. Therefore, the above observations and projections provide the essential scientific basis for NAP.

Box 3: Projected Changes in Climate in Sri Lanka: Some Scientific Evidence

Three modelling approaches have been used for projecting climate change in Sri Lanka: general circulation models (GCM), regional climatic models (RCM) and statistically downscaled GCM models (Eriyagama et al., 2010). Key global projections applicable to Sri Lanka are projections for Asia in fourth and fifth assessments reports (AR4 and AR5) of IPCC. The general agreement of these projections is that South Asia will increasingly become warmer (Cruz et al., 2007; Hijioka et al. 2014). The warming is projected to be stronger than global mean in South Asia. Some of the predictions with high confidence (very likely) applicable for South Asia are: mean annual temperature will increase by greater than 3 Celsius; increase in precipitation by mid-21st century; increased precipitation extremes related to monsoons, and; oceans getting warmer in tropical Asia (Hijioka et al., 2014). Ahmed and Supachalasai (2014), based on a RCM, predicted that temperature could rise by 3.6 C, 3.3 C and 2.3 C under A2, A1B and B1 scenarios, respectively by 2080 (Table B-1).

Table B-1: Temperature and Precipitation Projections under Different Scenarios

Climate parameter	2030			2050			2080
Climate parameter	A2	A1B	B1	A2	A1B	B1	A2	A1B	B1
Precipitation (%)	7.4	11.0	3.6	15.8	25.0	16.5	39.6	35.5	31.3
Temperature (C)	1.0	1.1	1.0	1.8	1.5	1.3	3.6	3.3	2.3

Source: Ahmed and Supachalasai (2014).

Like in the case of observed changes, projections also are less certain about the changes in rainfall pattern. Ahmed and Supachalasai (2014) predict increases in precipitation level by 39.6, 35.5 and 31.3 per cent, respectively under A2, A1B and B1 scenarios by 2080 (Table B-1). However, locally downscaled models have predictions on change in precipitation towards both directions—increasing as well as decreasing mean annual rainfall (MAR) (Eriyagama et al., 2010). According to one projection, MAR will increase by 14% for A2 and 5% for B2 by 2050s compared with 1960-1991, (De Silva, 2006b). This overall increase is not uniform and it predicts 34% for A2 and 26% for B2 decrease in NEM while projecting increases of 38% for A2 and 16% for B2 for SWM rainfall. Some studies have projected increased rainfall in wet zone, intermediate zones and north and south-western dry zones and decreased rainfall in other areas of dry zone by 2050 (Basnayake and Vithanage, 2004b). Studies have also suggested a 17% reduction of rainfall in the upper Mahaweli watershed in the central highlands by 2025 (De Silva, 2006b). Another recent projection has predicted that climate pattern in Sri Lanka is getting more polarized—Dry zone becomes drier and Wet zone becomes wetter in years to come (Punyawardena et al., 2013).

IPCC studies also project increased incidence of extreme weather events for the South Asian region that may include heat waves and intense precipitation events (Cruz et al., 2007). Coastal disasters have also been projected to rise with increased incidence of tropical cyclones by 10-20% (Cruz et al., 2007).

3. Scope of the Plan and Key Stakeholders

Climate change is a complex phenomenon with impacts spread over all sectors of the economy and every strata of the society. Therefore, some scoping is necessary to identify and organize adaptation actions against climate change impacts. According to UNFCCC guidelines, there are no standard frameworks proposed for scoping of impacts and organizing adaptation actions. Scoping of NAP has to be done according to the situation of respective countries.

A broad categorization of adaptation needs based on current understanding on climate change impacts as they are applicable in the context of Sri Lanka can be given as below:

Adaptation needs of key sectors
Cross-cutting national needs of adaptation

The NAP is intended to address both types of adaptation needs within a realistic timeframe. This section presents a brief description of two types of adaptation needs and the list of sectors and cross-cutting national issues identified in the consultation process of the NAP preparation. In addition, the section also identifies the key stakeholders of NAP and presents a comparison of the scope of the plan with the scopes of the National Climate Change Policy (NCCP) and the National Climate Change Strategy (NCCAS).

3.1. Adaptation Needs of Key Sectors

This refers to adaptation needs that can be handled within boundaries of vulnerable sectors. Consultations with key stakeholders and experts at the preparatory stage of the plan helped to identify nine critically important sectors in Sri Lanka in terms of vulnerability to climate change impacts and necessity of adaptive actions (Table 1). Usually, these sectors are serviced by established line ministries and agencies (e.g. Food security sector: Ministries for Agriculture/Livestock/Fisheries and associated line agencies; health sector: Ministry of Health and line agencies). Consultations also helped to identify priority areas within each sector that needs specific actions of adaptation. In the identification of sectors and priority areas within them, attention was also given to align them with organizational structure of line agencies responsible for catering needs of respective sectors as far as possible.

Table 1: Key Sectors and Priority Areas

Sector	Priority areas
Food security : agriculture,	Rice
livestock and fisheries	Other food crops (OFC)
	Horticultural crops
	Sugarcane
	Livestock
	Fisheries
	Agriculture and land degradation
Water resources	Water for agriculture Water for human consumption Water for industry and energy Degradation of watersheds
Coastal and marine sector	Coastal zone management
	Beach stability
	Coastal bio-diversity
	Ocean acidification
Health	Climate altering pollutants Diseases: Spread and outbreaks Hazardous events: Health impacts Heat/thermal stress
Human settlements and infrastructure	Urban settlements and infrastructure Rural settlements and infrastructure Estate settlements and infrastructure Coastal settlements and infrastructure
Ecosystems and biodiversity:	Forests Wild life Wetlands Agro ecosystems: home gardens Loss of ecosystem services
Tourism and recreation	Coastal tourism Tourism and bio-diversity Cultural assets
Export agriculture sector	Tea
	Rubber
	Coconut
	Export agricultural crops
Industry, energy and transportation	Industry Energy Transportation

Mainstreaming approach implies that climate change issues of these sectors should be handled by the respective line ministries and agencies themselves rather than by specialized agencies mandated for climate change. Simultaneously, the integrated approach implies that sectoral issues should be addressed with connection to national level issues also. The NAP takes a facilitative approach towards sectoral adaptation needs through an institutional mechanism that involves respective line ministries/agencies mandated to address the needs of respective sectors.

3.2. Cross-cutting National Needs of Adaptation

Cross-cutting national needs of adaptation are issues that pervade boundaries of the sectors. Overcoming gaps concerning these issues will help to increase adaptive capacities and reduce vulnerabilities of stakeholders in all or many sectors. As in the case of key sectors, cross-cutting areas have also been identified through the consultation of stakeholders and experts. The list of cross-cutting national issues and key areas of interest coming under them are given Table 2.

Table 2: Cross-cutting National Issues and Areas of Interest

Sector	Areas of interest
Policy, legal, economic and governance issues	Policies and programs Laws and regulations Governance procedures
Institutional development and coordination	Institutions Coordination
International cooperation and partnerships	International cooperation: global & regional Areas for cooperation Regional partnerships
Resource mobilization	Resource mobilization : national sources Resource mobilization : international sources Resource mobilization: local (private & community) Market based instruments
Research and development	Research & development
	Critical research needs
	Research facilities
	Skills and training needs
Technology transfer and	Technology transfer: International dimension
standards	Technology transfer: National and local
	Channels of transfer
	Standards

Building of adaptive capacity of communities	Assessing adaptive capacity and vulnerability Enhancing community participation Utilization of local knowledge Involvement of CSO Change in attitudes, lifestyles and behaviour
Education, training and awareness	Education (formal & informal) Training needs and skills Increasing awareness
Climate-induced disaster risk management	Climate-induced disaster risks Risk management instruments Establish Connectivity to existing disaster management plans
Climate information management	Climate forecasting: short-term & seasonal Long-term projections Communication of climate information

Climate change is a relatively new area of government intervention and there are no mandated national stakeholders vested with the responsibility of adaptation in respective cross-cutting areas except CCS. At present, CCS, as the national focal point for the subject, is expected to look after many areas in spite of the Secretariat’s limited capacity for doing so. Hence, identification of suitable national stakeholders and enlisting their support for planned interventions is a major challenge in implementing the plan. Responsibility of certain areas is already vested with national stakeholders (e.g. climate information - Department of Meteorology; disaster risk management – Disaster Management Centre). In such cases, the action plan should identify necessary capacity building interventions for the existing stakeholders whereas in others, the plan may need to come up with innovative solutions (e.g. institutional development and coordination).

3.3. Connectivity to and Consistency with other National Policies and Plans

3.3.1. Connectivity to National Climate Change Policy and the Strategy

NAPs are supposed to have a connection with national visions/goals and to derive their legitimacy through instruments such as national policies, Acts of parliament, national directives, decree or executive orders by the head of state. Hence, attention was given to maintain consistency with the National Climate change Policy (the Policy) and the National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (the Strategy) to the extent possible. However, the scope of the plan is not necessarily restricted by the scope of the Strategy.

It is necessary to position the NAP with respect to the Policy and the Strategy.

National Climate Change Policy: The Policy articulates the broad national policy statements which will guide decisions taken at national and sub-national levels against the threat of climate change. It presents twenty five policy statements to cover a number of relevant areas of climate change in Sri Lanka including: vulnerability, adaptation, mitigation, sustainable consumption and production, knowledge management and general statements concerning institutional coordination, research and development, technology transfer, legal and regulatory framework, market and non-market based mechanisms and resource mobilization. Adaptation is only one component of the policy and there are other complementary areas that are linked to adaptation (e.g. vulnerability). Hence the scope of the Policy is essentially broader than the scope of the NAP. However, the NAP expands and deepens the coverage of adaptation within the broader scope of statements adopted in the Policy and takes them into a level of practical implementation.

National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (2011-16): The Strategy identifies strategic priorities required to be addressed when facing the threat of global climate change. The scope of the Strategy is restricted only to adaptation. Hence it overlaps closely with the scope of NAP. Its scope covers five strategic thrusts, 25 thematic areas of action and 91 priority adaptation measures. Hence, it goes beyond identification of strategic priorities and suggests a broad selection of interventions to address these strategic priorities without specific plan of actions to implement them or to monitor the progress.

In the light of above descriptions of the Policy and the Strategy, the role and function of NAP can be described as follows. The NAP is a rolling plan with a set of implementable actions. It is not a statement of policies, strategies or principles but a selection of practical interventions identified by relevant stakeholders to overcome anticipated threats due to impacts of climate change. It comprises a set of interventions selected by key stakeholders considered as desirable to overcome the perceived threats of climate change impacts in key sectors and cross-cutting national areas of interest. While the interventions of NAP are guided by broad principles laid down by the Policy and strategic priorities identified by the Strategy, it is not necessarily restricted by their scopes. Interventions identified in the NAP are focused actions with specific timelines, responsible stakeholders, implementation strategies and key performance indicators for monitoring and reviewing mechanisms compared with the broad interventions suggested by the Strategy. The interventions have been designed to mainstream climate change adaptation in the overall national effort for sustainable development, integrating decisions taken at supra- and sub-national levels as well. Like the Policy and Strategy, it has also been developed through extensive consultation and participation of relevant stakeholders.

3.3.2. Connectivity to other National Policies and Plans

In addition to the Strategy and the Policy on climate change, the environment sector has a number of other national policies, strategies and action plans. Some of these policies have recognized climate change as a key environmental challenge faced by the country. Even though their coverage of the subject is not comprehensive and focused as in the current plan, they propose certain strategies, actions, projects for overcoming threats posed by climate change impacts on respective areas of interest. In this section, a brief review of most relevant policy documents is presented.

National Action Plan for Haritha Lanka Programme: The Haritha Lanka Programme has identified climate change as the third mission and selected certain strategies/actions relating to both mitigation and adaptation. While the climate change mission in Haritha Lanka has given more weight to strategies/actions targeting mitigation (i.e. reducing GHG emissions), it has adaptation actions in areas of infrastructure vulnerability, land use zoning, rain water harvesting, increase of vectors and food security.

Sri Lanka Comprehensive Disaster Management Programme 2014-2018 (SLCDMP): The SLCDMP is a policy document which has a close connection to the National Adaptation Plan (NAP). It identifies climate change as a type of disaster and proposes actions to overcome the consequences of it. In addition, other major types of disasters identified by the SLCDMP such as floods, droughts, landslides, high winds/cyclones also are closely associated with extreme weather events. As a result, there are overlapping areas in the two plans. The NAP does not intend to duplicate the SLCDMP. While proposing adaptation actions for extreme events in all sectors, the disaster risk management is identified separately as a cross–cutting need of adaptation so that all disaster related actions can be coordinated closely with the existing disaster management agencies such as the Ministry of Disaster Management and the Disaster Management Centre.

National Action Programme for Combating the Degradation of Lands in Sri Lanka (NAP-CDL): The NAP-CDL has recognized climate change as a factor that can intensify the degradation of land resources in future. It highlighted issues such as soil erosion and landslides in up- and mid-country wet zone (upper watershed) areas as critical issues together with actions to overcome them. These actions can complement the climate change adaptation. Therefore, certain actions in the two plans can be jointly implemented through proper coordination.

Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP): The CZMP has also recognized climate change as a factor that can intensify the degradation of coastal resources in future. Its main concerns include coastal erosion, coastal pollution and degradation of coastal habitats. The NAP identifies impacts of climate change on the coastal sector and proposes adaptation measures to overcome them. Hence, overlapping areas of the two plans are complementary and better results can be achieved through proper coordination.

National Physical Plan (NPP): The NPP has identified global warming as a concern that can affect physical development activities of the country. In addition, it covers some aspects of disaster risk management too. However, the major focus of the NPP is development of physical infrastructure facilities and no attention was given to climate adaptation. However, its proposal to conserve central and coastal regions as environmentally sensitive (fragile) areas, complements achieving the objectives of the National Adaptation Plan to a certain degree.

Sri Lanka Water Development Report 2010 (SLWDP): The Water Development Report has identified climate change as a major driver of change in the water resources sector. However, information in the report suggests that there is no current policy, plan or programme in the water sector that specifically cover climate change adaptation. Hence, proposed actions of the National Adaptation Plan would be highly beneficial for addressing adaptation needs in the water sector.

Draft National Agriculture Policy: The presently available draft framework of the National Agriculture Policy for public comments identified ‘Assuring food security’ and ‘Ensuring environment sustainability’ as two major pillars of the policy in making. It recognized ‘Natural resource management & climate change adaptation’ as a key strategic/intervention area that cover soil conservation, water management, agriculture climate forecast and disaster risk reduction. However, the policy is still at the preliminary stage of preparation and the NAP has a comprehensive portfolio of actions under food security and water resources sectors that can complement the objectives of the National Agriculture Policy.

Overall, none of the existing plans or policies covers climate change adaptation as a special focus area. There are a few policy documents that cover climate change within their scopes in limited manner. However, they are focused on addressing specific issues of respective sectors/resources and climate change has usually been identified as an overarching issue that could affect respective sectors/resources. When preparing the current plan, other policy documents such as Haritha Lanka, SLCDMP, CZMP and NAP-CDL and CNMP also were taken into consideration and experts from respective sectors were consulted. Hence, the National Adaptation Plan, while being specialized and focused specifically on the subject of climate change adaptation, adopted a complementary approach towards other plans that cover climate change within their scope.

3.4. Key Stakeholders of the Plan

Like many other national plans, the NAP has also been prepared to implement within the organizational structure of line ministries and line agencies of the Government of Sri Lanka. However, its target beneficiaries are not the government agencies but the vulnerable sections of the society to climate change impacts. The ultimate goals of the plan are to enhance the adaptive capacity of these target groups and reduce the state of vulnerability they are currently in. However, these ultimate goals have to be delivered through the joint efforts of key stakeholders that include:

Government sector (Line ministries and line agencies)
Private sector (Corporate sector and SMEs)
Civil society organizations
Academics, researchers and other knowledge makers
Local community-based organizations

While these stakeholders bear implementation and monitoring responsibilities of the plan in their professional and occupational capacities, individually they are also part of vulnerable sections of the society to climate change impacts. Hence, they have vested interests of being a part of target beneficiaries as well that should give additional source of motivation for making the plan a success.

4. Planning Concepts and Approaches

The plan is guided by the principles adopted by the Policy, the Strategy as well as the NAP guidelines developed by UNFCCC. Being a more practically oriented document, it is more concerned with planning concepts and approaches that underline the preparatory elements of the plan. The key planning approaches and concepts used are:

Mainstreaming adaptation to national development
Integration of sectoral and cross-cutting national dimensions
Adaptive policy and management
Anticipatory adaptation

Mainstreaming adaptation to national development: The NAP aims to mainstream the climate change adaptation to sustainable development of the country. The term ‘mainstreaming’ implies fulfilling a few essential conditions.

Prioritized: Adaptation to climate change impacts should be given due priority among other national issues at macro and sector levels that compete for policy makers’ attention.

Comprehensive: Plan should cover a comprehensive scope to address key priority areas concerning climate change impacts in Sri Lanka

Informed: Decisions/actions should be taken with consultation of the best available information at the time of decision

Timely attended: Issues pertaining to climate change should be addressed on a regular basis taking required decisions/actions at the right time

Ensured with sufficient resources: Necessary resources for implementation of planned interventions should be provided in adequate amounts in a timely manner

Coordinated: All actions should be taken with appropriate level of coordination among relevant stakeholders

Success of mainstreaming climate change adaptation to national development process would be determined by how successfully the above conditions shall be fulfilled by the plan of actions.

Integration of sectoral and macro dimensions: Climate change is a complex phenomenon that gives rise to sectoral and cross-cutting adaptation needs among sectors. Therefore, planned interventions should be integrated to address impacts and vulnerabilities that arise at different sectors as well as cross-cutting needs that may spread across boundaries of several sectors. It is the role of NAP to ensure that all necessary sectoral and macro dimensions of climate change impact are covered and arrangements are in place to integrate relevant sectors when impacts and adaptation options concerned are interconnected among sectors.

Adaptive policy and management: Uncertainty is the key challenge that has to be faced in making any form of planned intervention against climate change impacts. A policy dilemma arise here as no one can accurately predict future scenario(s) whereas decisions also cannot be delayed awaiting more information before it is too late. Therefore, adaptive policy making and management principles should be adopted here. This implies that: (a) selected interventions should be robust and resilient to a wide range of future scenarios and, (b) decision making process should be flexible to make adjustments according to emerging information.

Anticipatory adaptation: Climate change is an ongoing process. Policy makers can either take decisions in advance anticipating future impacts (anticipatory adaptation) or they can wait till impacts appear (reactive adaptation). Given the uncertainty involved in the whole process of climate change, reactive responses carry an immense risk. Therefore, the NAP adopts the principle of anticipatory adaptation.

5. Planning Methodology

The methodology of the plan was guided by the broad framework proposed by UNFCCC guidelines on the NAP process (Figure 1). Accordingly, the real planning activities of the NAP process are covered under the second stage on ‘preparatory elements’. The essential preparatory elements identified in NAP process include: analysing current climate and future climate scenarios; assessing vulnerabilities; identifying, reviewing and appraising adaptation options; and, compiling and communicating national adaptation plan.

The methodology of the plan was developed to cover these essential elements and the key steps of the methodology included the following:

Assess the projections on major changes in atmospheric and oceanic systems that are important for Sri Lanka
- Determine different physical effects/dimensions of change associated with the major projections
- Identify key physical hazards and vulnerabilities on major sectors caused by physical effects of projected changes
- Recognize likely impacts and their socio-economic outcomes on respective sectors and stakeholders
- Recognize adaptation needs of sectors, determine appropriate adaptation options to fulfill these needs and identify necessary actions to achieve these options
- Figure out cross-cutting national adaptation needs through the analysis of sectoral information and consultation of stakeholder views
- Identify interventions necessary for fulfilling cross-cutting national adaptation needs

These key steps were followed through an extensive series of consultations and analysis of inputs collected in the process.

5.1. Methodology of the Plan

The following activities were carried out to cover the methodological steps of the plan.

Review of available information: Information available from various sources on climate change in Sri Lanka was reviewed. The review also covered similar plans (e.g. climate change action plans; adaptation plans, NAPAs) prepared by other countries. IPS has already developed a significant understanding on climate change policy issues in Sri Lanka through research studies conducted during the last few years. It has recently conducted a policy analysis on key sectors using expert elicitation method for which the staff of CCS also was regularly invited. Inputs from review of literature, IPS own research as well as knowledge acquired from consultation of experts was used as background information for preparation of the plan.

Initial brainstorming sessions: Two brain storming workshop sessions were conducted for identifying the methodology and finalizing the scope of the plan. A UNFCCC expert was invited to the first workshop on methodology and he explained UNFCCC guidelines on NAP process in detail. These sessions followed by discussions between consultants, CCS staff and UNDP staff helped to develop the seven step methodological framework given above.

Consultations: Consultants developed a structured discussion guide based the methodological framework developed and conducted nine consultation meetings participated by government officers, academics, CSO members and experts on each sector. These discussions were the main data collection activity involved in preparation of the plan. In the discussions, inputs of participants were systematically gathered on: projections on major changes in atmospheric and oceanic systems; different physical effects of those projections; key physical hazards and vulnerabilities affecting respective sectors; likely impacts and their socio-economic outcomes; adaptation needs of sectors and appropriate adaptation options, and; actions necessary to achieve the options. In addition, one workshop was conducted to gather stakeholders’ opinions about cross-cutting needs of adaptation.

Analysis and preparation of the draft plan: Information gathered in discussions was analyzed using qualitative analytical tools. Based on the outcomes of analysis, the first complete draft of the plan was developed. This was submitted for comments and feedback of CCS staff. Revised draft was distributed to stakeholders for their comments.

Preparation of the final draft: The final draft of the plan was prepared by incorporating comments and suggestions offered by stakeholders in a final validation workshop.

Projections, Physical Effects, Impacts, Adaptation Needs and Adaptation

Options

This section presents a detailed summary of projections, physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options identified for each sector. Adaptation action plans for each sector presented in the next chapter were developed based on these summaries.

Stakeholder consultations helped to identify projections on five major types of changes in atmosphere and oceanic systems that could create impacts on vulnerable sectors. They are:

Increased atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases
Rising atmospheric temperature
Changing pattern of precipitation
Increased incidence and severity of rainfall
Sea level rise

It was identified that these projections have different physical effects (dimensions) that create impacts on respective sectors. These physical effects involve different time horizons and it seems many are already in effect or could take place in the short run. There are also physical effects that may take time to show their effects gradually. Table 3 presents the physical effects identified for each type of projections.

Table 3: Projections and their Physical Effects

Projections	Physical effects/dimensions	Time horizon
Increased concentration of GHG	Rising atmospheric CO2 concentration	Short-term
	Increased concentration of climate altering pollutants (non co2)	Short-term
	Progressive increase in acidity of rainfall	Long-term
	Ocean acidification	Long-term
Rising atmospheric temperature	Increased day and night air temperature	Short-term
	Increased evaporation and evapotranspiration	Short-term
	Alteration of optimal ranges of temperature for biological organisms (pests, pathogens, parasites, vectors)	Medium-term
	Increased concentration of dust/ soil particles in atmosphere	Short-term
	Heat island effect	Short-term
Rising oceanic temperature	Physio-chemical changes in oceanic environment	Long-term
Changing patterns of precipitation	Irregular/erratic changes in established patterns of rainfall	Short-term

	Regular incidents of intense rainfall with high cloud Short-term cover
	Regular and extended dry spells Short-term
	Boundary shift in climatic zones Long-term
Increased incidence and severity of extreme events	Increased frequency and severity of floods Short-term
	Increased frequency and severity of droughts Short-term
	Increased frequency of cyclones and high winds Short-term
	Increased incidence of lightening Short-term
	Increased incidence of landslides Short-term
	Increased wind and waves (Turbulent weather) Short-term
Sea level rise	Salt water intrusion Medium -term
Sea level rise	Inundation of low-lying areas Long-term

These physical effects create hazards and vulnerabilities on different sectors. These physical hazards and vulnerabilities are the root causes of sectoral impacts. They could create multiple impacts on sectors with socio-economic outcomes. Experts suggested that the same physical effects could lead to create different impacts on different sectors. Similarly, physical effects could act in combination with each other on different sectors. For instance, rising temperature would lead to create pronounced impacts on crops and natural biodiversity together with periodic dry spells or droughts, generating losses to farmers and peripheral communities around forest. Likewise, the same combination of physical effects could affect urban communities negatively by decreasing their living comfort, causing them to spend more on domestic cooling facilities. Identification of potential impacts on different sectors was the most important step for selection of respective adaptive actions for different sectors. This was done through lengthy and exhaustive expert consultation sessions where available limited information was screened by experts applying their professional knowledge as groups to reach consensus on types of impacts.

Adaptation needs of different sectors are determined by the impacts and their socio-economic outcomes. Depending on the types of impacts, sectors could have a number of adaptation needs. Adaptation options are broad solutions available to fulfil those adaptation needs of different sectors. Each adaptation option may involve several actions which are practical measures of adaptation that help to build up the adaptive capacity and reduce vulnerability of stakeholders in each sector. Summary of physical effects, vulnerabilities/physical hazards, impacts, socio-economic outcomes, adaptation needs and adaptation options identified for nine sectors are presented in Appendix Tables A1-A9.

Overall analysis of summary tables helped to identify cross-cutting national needs of adaptation that help to build up the adaptive capacity of all or many sectors simultaneously. In the next chapter, adaptation action plans developed for each sector and the plan for cross-cutting adaptation actions are presented.

7. The Plan

National Adaptation Plan is the country’s road map to guide the national efforts for confronting challenges posed by global climate change and its impacts. It envisages moderating and coping harmful impacts of climate change while taking the advantage of any opportunities presented in the path. It offers a practical path of action to reduce the vulnerability and enhance the adaptive capacity of the nation as a whole.

It is consisted of action plans for nine vulnerable sectors and a set of interventions proposed to fulfill cross-cutting national needs of adaptation. Among the key components covered in the NAP are: specific actions/interventions with time lines to fulfill sectoral and cross-cutting adaptation needs; an implementation strategy for selected interventions; institutional mechanisms for coordination of actions of stakeholders; key performance indicators (KPI) for each action; system for monitoring and evaluation KPIs.

7.1. Goals

The NAP aims to achieve Sri Lanka’s objectives of sustainable development through appropriate, timely measures of adaptation so as to ensure a secure future for its citizens by minimizing the impacts of climate change on human life, ecosystems, national assets and the economy.

The major goals of the plan are:

Raise the adaptive capacity of individuals, communities and the society to cope with impacts of climate change effectively;
Reduce the vulnerability to climate risks by enhancing the resilience of communities and ecosystems, and;
Capture any opportunities that arise due to changes for maximum gain for the society and people.

7.2. Objectives

The plan intends to reach these broader goals through achieving the following objectives.

Increasing the resilience of economic sectors and natural systems against the emerging and projected impacts of climate change by adopting appropriate coping strategies and system improvements
Minimizing the risk of damage caused by short-, medium- and long-term impacts associated with projected changes in climatic parameters through timely adaptive measures

Expanding the current knowledge on observed and projected changes of climate and associated physical vulnerabilities and socio-economic impacts through scientific research
Building the capacity of communities, economic sectors and ecosystems to adjust more readily to unfolding changes of climate through supportive investments on adaptive actions and increased awareness
1. Improving the existing systems of disaster risk management to minimize the vulnerabilities and increase the risk preparedness for extreme events
2. Increasing the preparedness to face the threats of climate change through establishment of advanced monitoring and surveillance systems, timely weather and climate forecasting systems and effective communication channels for information dissemination
3. Increasing the skills and knowledge on successful practices of adaptation through well- designed education, training and awareness programmes

7.3. Time Plan of Actions

Time horizon of the plan is ten years extending from 2015 to 2024. This period is divided into three stages for periodic revision of the plan according to the following timeframe.

Table 4: Time Horizons of the Plan

Period	Stage of the Plan	Review
1-4 years (2016 -2019)	Foundation building stage	Progress of the first stage to be reviewed at the last quarter of 2018 and necessary adjustments be made
5-7 years (2020 -2022)	Development stage	Progress of the both stages since 2015 to be reviewed at the last quarter of 2021 and necessary adjustments to be made
8-10 years (2023- 2025)	Goal achieving stage	Progress of the whole plan to be reviewed at the first quarter of 2025 and gaps and lessons for future plans to be identified

7.4. Summary of the Overall Plan

Table 5 presents an overall summary of the plan. It presents a list of actions that were assigned the highest priority by stakeholders from respective sectors and the priority actions identified for overcoming the cross-cutting adaptation needs. Priority was determined by ranking offered by individual experts and working groups on respective sectors in the validation workshop. The detailed action plans for respective sectors and cross-cutting needs of adaptation are presented in Tables 6-15.

Table 5: An Overall Summary of the Plan - Priority Actions

Sector	Priority actions
Food security	Develop tolerant varieties (paddy, OFC, horticulture) and breeds (livestock and poultry) to heat stress, drought and floods and resistant to diseases and pest attacks Develop and promote water efficient farming methods Adjust cropping calendars according to climate forecasts Develop systems for timely issuing and communicating of climate information to farmers Develop research institute capacity for conducting research on tolerant varieties/breeds and climate resilient farming methods
Water resources	Develop and implement watershed management plans for critical watershed areas Increase the efficiency of use and reduce losses of irrigation water Assess the current practices of water management for climate resilience and identify ways to improve them Identify and map areas vulnerable to droughts and flood hazards and prepare disaster risk management plans Design rational intra-basin and trans-basin strategies to harness periodic surpluses of water in storage facilities
Coastal and marine sector	Implement a continuous programme for monitoring shore line changes Develop shore shoreline management plans including M&E programmes Study impacts of sea level rise on costal habitats over short-, medium- and long-term horizons Identify, declare, collect information and prepare maps on vulnerable areas to extreme events and inundation Conduct awareness programmes on sea level rise and extreme events to coastal communities to empower them for facing the risks of climate change
Health	Establish a surveillance programme for detection and monitoring of climate induced diseases Conduct research studies on impact of climate change prevalence and spread of vector borne and pathogenic diseases Develop research institutes’ capacity conducting research on health impacts of climate change Strengthen the mechanisms for sharing information between disaster management and health management agencies Launch awareness programmes on climate and health risks for healthcare workers and the public

Human settlements and · Promote climate resilient building designs

infrastructure · Revise building approval systems to increase the climate resilience

Conduct research studies on climate resilient building designs, green building concepts and alternative materials
Conduct training programmes on climate resilient buildings for industry stakeholders
Prepare hazard preparedness plans for urban, rural and estate settlements

Ecosystems and · Conduct research studies on climate change impacts on ecosystems and

biodiversity biodiversity

Establish a comprehensive programme to monitor climate change impacts on key natural ecosystems and biodiversity
Prepare adaptive management programmes for climate sensitive ecosystems
Prepare recovery plans for highly threatened ecosystems and species
Develop research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on climate change impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity

Tourism and recreation · Increase the awareness of tour industry operators on climate change

and its impacts

Establish emergency communication channels for tourists and operators
Identify tourism facilities in vulnerable areas and make arrangements to increase the climate resilience of them
Assess the current promotional strategies with connection to emerging scenarios of climate change and adjust them accordingly
Conduct research studies on climate change impacts on tourism and recreation

Export agriculture sector · Introduce new cultivars/clones tolerant to heat, drought and flood and

resistant to disease and pest attacks

Promote improved nursery and plant management practices and sustainable cropping systems to increase the climate resilience of plantations and crops
Conduct research studies on climate change impacts on export agriculture crops
Identify and collect information on areas most vulnerable to disasters and prepare hazard vulnerability maps for all crops
Develop research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on climate change impacts on export agriculture crops

Industry, energy and · Minimize the fluctuation hydropower generation potential through transportation improvements in system management Diversify the energy mix with increased share of renewable energy Diversify the supply sources of climate sensitive agro-based raw materials Establish an early warning and hazard communication system for commuters and managers of energy, transport and industrial facilities Conduct research studies on climate change impacts on industry, energy and transportation
Cross-cutting needs of adaptation	Undertake a review of relevant macro and sectoral policies, ordinances, acts, statutes and procedures to identify options for mainstreaming climate change adaptation activities in Sri Lanka Develop policy recommendations necessary for addressing vulnerability to impacts of climate change in all development /management projects Restructure and strengthen the Climate Change Secretariat as the National Focal Point (NFP) for implementation of NAP Develop an inventory of international climate donors, funding schemes, training providers, training programmes, research agencies/consortiums and events (conferences, seminars etc.) for the benefit of local stakeholders of adaptation Create a National Adaptation Fund with the collaboration of the Ministry of Finance to support the implementation of NAP actions and supportive programmes Establish a national network of research agencies and universities that are carrying out research on climate adaptation for promoting coordinated research and information dissemination Develop a coordinated multi-disciplinary small research grant programme on thematic areas relating to climate change adaptation to be facilitated by the National Focal Point and managed by the national research support agencies (e.g. NSF, NRC, CARP) Establish a common repository of scientific and awareness materials on climate change adaptation Initiate a joint island wide programme for identification of religious, cultural and archaeological assets vulnerable to climate change impacts and conservation of threatened assets Conduct training programmes for government officers, CSO members, and private sector employees on climate change adaptation Establish a national research programme on climate modelling for long- term climate projections

7.5. Sectoral Adaptation Plans

Sectoral action plans contain adaptation actions/interventions proposed to fulfill adaptation needs of nine identified sectors. These sectors were identified for their high level of vulnerability to impacts of climate change. The actions of sectoral plans have been chosen to fulfil adaptation needs of the sectors which have been identified on a logical criteria based on projections, vulnerabilities and impacts on respective sectors. Details on identification of adaptation needs are presented in Appendix Tables A-1 to A-9. Action plans begin with adaptation needs and provide details on actions, responsible agencies and key performance indicators. The specific institutional and implementation mechanisms proposed for implementation of sectoral plans are presented in forthcoming sections of the plan. Tables 5-14 present the actions plans for each sector.

Food Security

Food security is one of the most critical areas that need special attention in climate adaptation in Sri Lanka. Key components that contribute to food security in Sri Lanka are rice, other food crops, fruits and vegetables (horticultural crops), animal production and fisheries. The country has achieved self- sufficiency in rice. However, the country depends on imports for a number of other food products. Hence, agriculture development efforts in the country are mainly targeted at achieving self-sufficiency or reducing the import dependency of at least main categories of food such as milk and milk products and sugar. Relative contribution of the agriculture sector to the national economy has reduced to around 10 per cent of GDP. However, agriculture still occupies around 30 per cent of the workforce and a significant share of farmers live under poverty. Of all the economic sectors, agriculture is the most climate sensitive sector and climate related hazards have significantly affected the agricultural production and farm assets during the recent past. Hence, high climate sensitivity and livelihood dependency of a large section of population makes food security a highly vulnerable sector to climate change impact that needs special attention in national adaptation plan.

Table 6: Sector Action Plan – Food Security

Adaptation needs	Adaptation options	Actions	Responsible agencies		Key performance indicators
Enhance the	A. Germ plasm improvements	Screen existing varieties/breeds for heat and water stress. Develop tolerant varieties (paddy, OFC, horticulture) Heat tolerant Drought tolerant Short maturation Develop heat tolerant breeds (Focus: livestock and poultry)	DOA DAPH AFoU VRI NLDB	· · ·	Number of existing varieties/breeds gone through the screening process Number of tolerant varieties developed Number of heat tolerant breeds developed
resilience of
crops,
animals, fish
and agro-
ecosystems
against heat
and water
stress
	B. Improvement of farm water management	Reduce field-level irrigation water losses	DOA	·	% of reduction in irrigation water losses
		Promote micro-irrigation techniques	DI	·	Number of micro-irrigation initiatives
		Develop water efficient farming methods	DAD	·	Number of water efficient farming
		Promote on-farm rainwater harvesting	MASL		methods developed
		Promote reuse of wastewater		·	Number of on-farm rainwater harvesting
					initiatives
	C. Promotion of resource efficient farming systems	Improve cropping systems and conservation farming practices Improve nursery protection Introduce flower induce techniques in fruits Increase the use organic matter to improve soil quality (Integrated plan nutrient management) Promote low-water demanding crops and varieties and crop diversification (Focus: Dry and intermediate zones) Promote the intensive management of livestock	DOA	·	% increase in the yield due to improve
			DAPH		cropping systems and conservation
			AFoU		farming practices
			VRI	·	% drop in the nursery plant losses
				·	Number of flower induce techniques
					introduced
				·	% increase in the use of organic matter
	D. Sectoral Capacity	Develop research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on tolerant varieties and water efficient farming methods.	NSF	·	Number of training programme
	development		DOA
			VRI
			CARP

Minimize the	A. Germ plasm improvements	Screen existing varieties/breeds for pest and disease resistance. Develop pest resistant varieties (Focus: paddy, OFC, horticulture; insect pests and diseases) Develop disease resistant breeds (Focus: livestock and poultry)	DOA DAPH AFoU VRI NLDB	Number of existing varieties/breeds gone through the screening process Number of pest resistance varieties developed Number of disease resistant breeds developed
risk of crop
and health
damage due
to biological
agents
	B. Strengthening of supporting facilities	Strengthen vaccination programmes Develop pest forecasting system Conduct research on parasites and diseases Promote crop clinics	DOA DAPH VRI	Amount of money allocated for vaccination programme Pest forecasting system developed Number of research outputs o parasites and diseases
	C. Promotion of best practices	Promote integrated pest management	DOA	Number of awareness programmes on integrated pest management
Minimize the	A. Establishment of an efficient climate information management and communication system	Develop a system for timely issuing of seasonal and medium-term weather forecasts (Focus: mobile and internet alert systems) Adjust cropping calendars according to the seasonal weather forecasts	DM DOA DAPH	System is developed Cropping calendars adjusted
impact on
food security
due to erratic
changes in
precipitation
	B. Improvement of pasture and fodder management	Diversify into livestock feeds other than naturally grown pasture Promote silage and hey production Promote techniques of fodder production and conservation	DAPH VRI NLDB	Number of other types of livestock feeds adapted Number of research carried out to suggest other livestock feed types Number of awareness programmes on silage production Number of techniques promoted Amount of money allocated for promotion of fodder production and conservation techniques
Enhance the resilience of crops, animals, fish and agro-	A. Germ plasm improvements	Screen existing varieties for tolerance to extreme events Develop tolerant varieties (Focus: paddy) Flood tolerant Drought tolerant	DOA AFoU	Number of existing varieties gone through the screening process Develop flood and drought tolerant varieties

ecosystems	B. Establishment of an efficient climate information management and communication system	Develop a system for timely issuing of short- term weather forecasts Strengthen the early warning systems Strengthen fishing Vessel monitoring and tracking system (Focus: Coastal and deep sea fishing) Develop mobile phone based communication systems Develop safety plans and promote use of safety equipment	DM	·	Forecasting system developed
to extreme			DOA	·	Money allocated for strengthening the
weather			DFAR		early warning system
events			DAPH	·	Fishing Vessel monitoring and tracking
					system established
				·	Mobile phone based communication
					system developed
				·	Safety plans are developed
				·	Number of awareness programs on the
					use of safety equipments
	C. Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management	Identify and collect information on areas most vulnerable to flood and drought hazards Identify food storage capacities in vulnerable areas Develop buffer stocks and maintain them regularly	DMC	·	Number of areas where the Information
			DFC		collection is finalized
			DCD	·	Number of food storage capacities are
			PMB		assessed identified
				·	Number of vulnerable areas with
					established buffer stocks
Minimize the	Germ plasm · Screen existing varieties for tolerance to improvements salinity/alkalinity Develop salinity/alkalinity tolerant varieties (Focus: paddy) Strengthening the · Monitor regularly the development of monitoring of salinity /alkalinity levels climate impacts · Strengthen the seawater defense structures to control sea water intrusions to coastal paddy lands Exploring · Convert severely affected paddy lands for alternatives other uses (e.g. brackish water aquaculture)		DOA	·	Number of existing varieties gone through
impacts of			AFoU		the screening process
sea level rise				·	Number of salinity tolerant varieties
on agriculture					developed
in coastal zone			CCD NARA	·	Data base with quarterly salinity levels in the coastal areas
			DOA	·	Money allocated for rehabilitation of the
			ID		salinity exclusion structures
				·	Number of the salinity exclusion structures
			NAQDA		rehabilitated
			DOA	·	Number of paddy acres converted
			DAD

Assess the changes in oceanic environment and impacts

Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts

Assess long-term structural changes oceanic habitats and composition of species
Assess climate change impacts on lagoon and coastal fisheries
Assess climate change impacts on reef fish

NARA

AFoU/SFoU NSF

NRC CARP

Completion of the assessment (long-term structural changes oceanic habitats and composition of species) and report made available
Completion of the assessment (climate

on livelihoods

stock

change impacts on lagoon and coastal

and food

security

Assess the impacts of rising atmospheric CO2 on productivity crops and weed populations

Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts
Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts

Initiate long-term monitoring of essential bio-physical parameters (National monitoring programme)

Conduct research studies on impact of increased CO2 on agriculture
- Productivity of crops
- Weed populations (Focus: Invasive alien species)

NARA

CCD

DOA

AFoU/SFoU NSF

NRC CARP fisheries ) and report made available

Completion of the assessment (climate change impacts on reef fish stock) and report made available
A monitoring system for essential bio- physical parameters is established
- Number of research studies conducted
- Amount of money spent on research

Table 7: Sector Action Plan – Water Resources

Adaptation needs	Adaptation options	Actions	Responsible agencies		Key performance indicators
Enhance the	A. Improvement of watershed management	Identify and map critical watersheds Develop and implement watershed management plans for critical upper watersheds - Declare critical catchments as resrves - Incorporate water safety plans Increase the canopy cover in catchment areas of - Irrigation reservoirs - Water supply reservoirs - Hydropower reservoirs Promote conservation farming methods in reservoir catchments Launch participatory cascade management programmes in selected village tank catchments Incorporate climate impact assessment for the future water resources development plans	ID	·	Number of watershed plans developed
resilience of			MASL	·	% of canopy cover increased in the
systems for			DAD		catchment areas of irrigation and water
water			CEB		supply reservoirs
resources			NWSDB	·	Number of conservation framing methods
management			WRB		adopted
and use to			PCs	·	Amount o money allocated/spent on
overcome the					promotion of conservation farming
scarcities					methods
caused by				·	Number of workshops carried out in
climate					promotion
change				·	Number of villages covered by the
impacts				·	Number of villages covered by the
					participatory cascade management
					programmes
				·	Amount of money allocated/spent on
					participatory cascade management
					programmes
	B. Capacity development of storage facilities	Assess the current facilities and storage options in connection to future projections of climate change Evaluate future options for enhancement of storage facilitates including groundwater Develop a road map and investment plan for efficient utilization of existing and future storage options Assess, regularize and preserve ground water resources at local level water resources for effective utilization	ID	·	Number of current facilities and storage
			MASL		options assessed
			DAD	·	An assessment report is finalized and made
			NWSDB		available on the current facilities and
			WRB		storage options
			IWMI	·	Number of options evaluated
				·	A road map and an investment plan is
					developed.

C. Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts	Assess short-, medium- and long-term impacts of climate change on water resources management in the country Screen current practices of water management for climate resilience and identify ways to improve them Explore climate resilient indigenous practices of water management and identify ways to integrate them into modern practices	ID	·	An assessment report completed and
		MASL		published
		DAD	·	Number of screened water management
		DM		practices for climate change resilience
		IWMI	·	Number of indigenous practices of water
		AFoU/SFoU		management identified and integrated
		NSF
		NRC
		CARP
D. Strengthening the monitoring of climate change impacts (changing pattern of variability)	Initiate a long-term monitoring programme on essential bio-physical parameters of climate change on water resources National monitoring programme	CEA DM ID MASL DAD IWMI NWSDB	·	Monitoring programme is installed and functioning
E. Promote efficient practices of water management and use	Promote efficient domestic water use practices: - Domestic rain-water harvesting systems (e.g. ferro-cement tanks; roof top) - Domestic water treatment facilities Increase the efficiency of use and reduce losses of irrigation water - Re-use of drainage (waste) water - Water saving irrigation applications: micro irrigation, drip irrigation - Efficient use of groundwater: Production wells , boreholes - Rainwater harvesting: Pathaha Improve maintenance of existing reservoirs - Improve the water conveyance efficiency - Rehabilitation of village tanks to design capacity Promote wastewater recycling for industrial and aquaculture water uses	ID	·	Number of awareness campaigns launched
		MASL		to promote efficient domestic water use
		DAD		practices
		IWMI	·	Money allocated/spent on promoting
		NWSDB		efficient domestic water use practices
		DOA	·	Number of awareness campaigns on
				promoting means of reducing wastage and
				losses in irrigation
			·	Money allocated/spent on promoting
				means of reducing wastage and losses in
				irrigation
			·	Money allocated/spent on improving the
				maintenance of existing reservoirs
			·	Number of village tanks rehabilitated
			·	Number of village tanks with improved
				conveyance efficiency

Ensure the	A. Strengthening the monitoring of climate change impacts (extreme events)	Assess the capacity of existing hydro- meteorological information facilities Implement necessary capacity improvement measures (Focus: facilities in water management agencies)	DM ID MASL DAD NWSDB DOA	Number of assessments completed out of existing hydro-meteorological information facilities An assessment report is completed and published Number of initiatives implemented
safety of
water
management
facilities and
minimize
disturbances	B. Establishment of an efficient climate information and communication system	Improve the existing system for timely issuing short term weather forecasts Strengthen the early warning systems Develop network based communication systems (Focus: mobile phones and internet) Assess the traditional knowledge of weather forecasting and integrate them for better forecasts of water availability.	DM ID MASL DAD NWSDB DOA	A system is developed Money allocated/spent on strengthening the systems of short-term weather forecasts A mobile phone based communication is in place Money allocated/spent on developing the mobile phone based communication system An assessment study is completed and report published on traditional knowledge of weather forecasting Number of training programmes/workshops conducted on integrating traditional knowledge of weather forecasting in to existing one
to supply due
to extreme
weather
events
	C. Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management	Identify, map and collect information on areas most vulnerable to flood , drought and land slide hazards Develop disaster risk management plans for vulnerable areas Establish necessary facilities for improvement of drainage in susceptible areas Develop dam safety plans and promote use of safety measures and equipment	DMC NBRO ID MASL DAD NWSDB DM	Number of areas identified and completed with data collection Number of areas completed with finalized flood risk management plans Number of areas with established facilities for improvement of drainage Number of dam safety plans developed

D. Capacity development of storage facilities		Design rational strategies to harness excess water in storage facilities (Focus: Intra-basin and trans-basin approaches)	ID MASL DAD NWSDB DM	· ·	Number of strategies designed to harness the excess water in storage facilities. Number of workshops/training programmes on designing strategies to harness the excess water in storage facilities
Minimize the	A. Strengthening the monitoring of climate change impacts (sea level rise)	Monitor salinity levels regularly	NARA CCD	· ·	Money allocated/spent on developing the monitoring system Regular (quarterly) monitoring reports prepared and presented
impacts of
sea level rise
on water
supply and
management	B. Improve saltwater intrusion protection measures in coastal areas and wetlands	Identify vulnerable areas for saltwater intrusion and develop maps Strengthen the salinity exclusion structures to control sea water intrusions Design and construct salinity barriers to protect fresh water resources and agricultural lands Establish desalinization facilities in affected/vulnerable areas	CCD	·	Number of vulnerable areas identified and
in coastal			ID		plans developed
zone			DAD	·	Number of salinity exclusion structures
			NWSDB		rehabilitated/repaired/newly built
			DA	·	Amount of money allocated/spent on
			NARA		rehabilitating/repairing the salinity
			NAQDA		exclusion structures
				·	Number of salinity barriers designed
				·	Number of desalination facilities
					established

Coastal and Marine Sector

Sri Lanka is an island nation surrounded by a low-lying coastal belt. Around a third of the country’s population is concentrated in the costal belt. There are several townships located in the coastal zone and relatively well developed infrastructure facilities are found in those areas. Fisheries and tourism are among the significant economic activities in the coastal zone and numerous fishing villages, harbours and anchorages are located around the country. Nearly a quarter of a million families make their living on coastal and offshore fishing. The coastal belt is rich with numerous coastal and marine ecosystems. Beyond the beach zone, fertile strips of rice and coconut lands are located that support the food security and export earnings of the country. Overall, coastal areas contribute the country’s economy significantly and a large share of population is dependent on them. Sea level rise, a major physical effect associated with climate change, is likely to create significant impacts over the coastal zone. Tsunami in 2004 has indicated that Sri Lanka’s low-lying coastal areas will be highly vulnerable to inundation. Besides, rising incidence of extreme and unpredictable weather events have created uncertainties over costal livelihoods sometimes even causing life and property damages. Hence, adaptation in coastal and marine sectors is critical for the country’s sustainable development.

Table 8: Sector Action Plan – Coastal and Marine Sector

Adaptation needs	Adaptation options	Actions	Responsible agencies		Key performance indicators
Strengthen	A. Initiating research studies to assess impacts of sea level rise	Study impacts of sea level rise on coastal habitats over short-medium- and long-term horizons Study erosion trends and identify appropriate protection measures Conduct research studies on coastal water quality and hydrodynamics in relation to climate change Establish regional collaborations on research and monitoring	NARA CCD MEPA DFAR EFoU/SFoU	· · · · ·	Number of studies completed/published Amount of money allocated/spent on research studies Number of regional collaborative studies undertaken/completed/published Number of collaborative workshop conducted Amount of money allocated/spent on regional collaborative studies
the coastal
zone
management
to face the
impacts of
sea level rise
	B. Establishment of a sea level rise monitoring system	Identify critical shore line parameters for regular monitoring Implement continuous monitoring of shore line changes Prepare maps on low-lying areas vulnerable to inundation Prepare a data base on existing coastal habitats Promote participation of coastal communities in monitoring sea level rise Establish the mean sea level	CCD NARA SD	· · · · ·	Number of parameters identified Regular (Quarterly) monitoring reports produced on shore line changes Number of area maps developed/produced on inundation A fully functioning data base is created Number of participants from coastal communities who are enlisted

Strengthening the · Develop shoreline management plan CCD · Number of shoreline management plans coastal protection including M & E programme developed

and management · Update CZMP to ensure greater concern · CZMP is updated to ensure greater concern over climate change impacts over climate change impacts

Prepare SMA plans to vulnerable areas · Number of vulnerable areas with
Revise set back limits considering the sea completed SAM plants

level rise · % of the shoreline areas with established

Undertake physical protection measures in set back limits to take account of sea level critical areas rise

- Establish green belts and increase · % shoreline with established of physical vegetation covers protection measures

- Undertake sand nourishment

- Build coastal defence structures in strategic locations (Focus: off-shore breaks, revetment, sea walls, break waters etc.)

Participatory · Conduct awareness programmes on sea level CCD · Number of awareness programmes management of rise and extreme events to coastal NARA conducted on sea level rise to coastal sensitive coastal communities to empower them for facing MEPA communities

habitats climate change impacts DWLC · Number of coastal communities with fully

Prepare and implement participatory FD developed participatory management management plans for the conservation and plans for the conservation and

rehabilitation of sensitive coastal habitats rehabilitation of sensitive coastal habitats with the collaboration of local communities

and CSOs

- Conservation of mangrove, salt marshes and sea grass beds

- Sand dune rehabilitation

- Restoration of mangroves

- Restoration of coral reefs

Health

Health is another area that climate change can create significant impacts. Studies around the world have suggested the possibility of increased health hazards with changing climate patterns. Life cycles of biological agents associated with diseases are highly sensitive to weather and climate related parameters. On the other hand, several countries have reported a rising number of fatalities due to heat waves and disasters. Sri Lanka has reported relatively high achievements in the health sector compared with other developing nations. In spite of that, the country has recently experienced outbreak of diseases that are closely connected with environment and weather patterns. Seasonal outbreaks of dengue are a prime example of this. Spread of vector borne diseases into new areas with changing patterns of local climate is a potential health hazard that needs close attention. Sri Lanka has a history of such epidemics in the past such as periodic outbreaks of malaria. In addition, extreme weather conditions can lead to disasters causing injuries and fatalities. Besides, living and health comfort can directly be affected by gradual rise in temperature and sudden, uncharacteristic and extreme changes in weather parameters. Demographic information suggests that Sri Lanka has an ageing population which would particularly be vulnerable to climate related health hazards. Hence, serious effort towards adaptation against potential health hazards associated with climate change is a priority.

Table 9: Sector Action Plan – Health

Adaptation needs	Adaptation options	Actions	Responsible agencies		Key performance indicators
Assess and	A. Conducting research studies to assess the risk of climate- induced diseases	Conduct research studies on impact of climate change on prevalence and spread of Vector bone diseases Pathogenic diseases Assess critical factors for controlling climate- induced disease incidents Identify plausible strategies for management of climate-induced disease incidents	MoH MRI NSF NRC MFoU/SFoU	· · · ·	Number of research studies conducted Amount of money allocated/utilized for doing research Assessment on the critical factors for controlling climate-induced disease incidents finalized Number of plausible strategies identified for management of climate-induced disease incidents
prepare for the
increased
health risks
due to climate-
induced vector
bone and
pathogenic
diseases
	B. Strengthening the surveillance and monitoring of climate- induced diseases	Establish a surveillance program for detection and monitoring of climate-induced diseases Prepare vulnerability maps on climate related health hazards Establish a mechanism for sharing meteorological , clinical and entomological information (Focus: central and provincial data)	MoH MRI	· · ·	Surveillance programme established Number of vulnerability maps produced Money allocated for establishing a mechanism for sharing meteorological , clinical and entomological information
	C. Capacity development for managing climate-induced disease incidents	Strengthen the alertness of health system against climate-induced disease incidents Launch an awareness programme on climate and health risks for Healthcare workers Public Develop/review guidelines for management of climate-induced disease incidents Develop research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on climate and health issues including multidisciplinary collaborative research	MoH MRI NSF NRC MFoU/SFoU	· · · · · ·	Amount of money allocated/spent for Strengthening the alertness of health system against climate-induced disease incidents Number of awareness programme conducted Guidelines are developed and published Amount of money allocated for the development Number of training programme conducted Amount of money spent on purchasing laboratory equipments

Minimize the	A. Establishing an efficient climate information and communication system	Strengthen early warning systems of extreme events Strengthen the mechanism for sharing information between disaster management and health management agencies	DMC DM MoH MRI	Amount of money allocated/spent on the activities on the early warning system Number of activities initiated to strengthen the early warning system Amount of money allocated/spent on establishment of the mechanism Number of information sharing workshops conducted
health hazards
associated with
increased
incidence of
extreme events
	B. Improvement of disaster risk preparedness of health related agencies and workers	Develop disaster risk preparedness guidelines for health workers in vulnerable areas Increase the knowledge and awareness on health impacts of extreme events among healthcare workers (e.g. MOH, PHI) Improve the coordination between disaster management and health management agencies	DMC DM MoH MRI	Guidelines are developed and published Number of awareness workshops conducted Amount of money allocated/spent on awareness workshops Amount of money allocated/spent on activities to strengthen the coordination Number of coordination meetings/workshops between the agencies
Assess and	A. Conducting research studies to assess health impacts of climate altering pollutants	Conduct research studies on health impacts of climate altering pollutants (Focus: availability, temporal variation and health impacts) Identify and assess treatment procedures and diagnostic tools	MoH MRI NSF NRC MFoU/SFoU	Number of research studies conducted Amount of money allocated/spent on research Number of treatment procedures and diagnostic tools identified
prepare for
health risks
caused by
concentration
of climate
altering
altering	B. Improvement of monitoring of climate altering pollutants	Establish air quality monitoring facilities in strategic locations Establish pollution dispersion and transport forecasting system (Focus: computer numerical modelling) Review and improve monitoring standards of pollutants to keep up with world standards Establish a mechanism for consulting health sector on matters concerning EPLs	CEA MoH MRI NSF NRC MFoU/SFoU	Amount of money allocated/spent on establishing air quality monitoring facilities in strategic locations Amount of money spent on establishment of pollution transport system Number of locations where the monitoring systems are established Amount of money allocated/spent on establishing mechanisms
pollutants	B. Improvement of monitoring of climate altering pollutants		CEA MoH MRI NSF NRC MFoU/SFoU

C. Capacity development for managing health impacts of climate altering pollutants			Strengthen respiratory disease control programme Develop guidelines for controlling exposure Increase public awareness on health impacts of pollution Develop a mechanism for dissemination of air pollution levels to the general public in high risk areas Train health workers on environmental health and safety		MoH MRI CEA	Amount of money allocated/spent on strengthening the programme Guidelines are developed Number of awareness programmes conducted Number of training programmes conducted
Assess the	A.	Conducting	·	Conduct research studies on heat/thermal stress on human health Identify and assess Diagnostic tools and treatment procedures Increase public awareness on health risks of heat /thermal stress	MoH	Number of research studies conducted Amount of money allocated/spent on research studies Assessments on the diagnostic tools and treatment procedures are completed Number of awareness programmes conducted Amount of money allocated/spent on awareness activities
impact on		research studies			MRI
health due to		to assess health	·		NSF
increased heat		impacts of			NRC
and thermal		heat/thermal			MFoU/SFoU
stress		stress	·

Table 10: Sector Action Plan – Human Settlements and Infrastructure

Adaptation needs	Adaptation options		Actions	Responsible agencies		Key performance indicators
Enhance the	A.	Improvement	Mainstream climate resilience in physical and urban planning and incorporate them for planning for development projects Adopt green building concepts in planning Encourage of wind corridors and open spaces Promote planning the human settlement schemes so as to minimize the adverse effect (and promote)on localized and regional water resources Promote climate resilient building designs Develop specifications, standards, guidelines, promotion of alternative building materials Create public awareness Provide training to industry stakeholders Promote use of alternative materials Identify and assess alternative materials Assess the availability Create public awareness Provide training to industry stakeholders Develop/review appropriate sector specific building standards and guidelines for urban, rural and estate sectors Provide standardization of equipment such as A/C and refrigerators so they emit less GHG’s	UDA	·	Number of workshops conducted in
resilience of		and promotion		LAs		mainstreaming climate resilience in
human		of building		NBRO		physical and urban planning
settlements		designs for		NPPD	·	A document on contacting green building
and		enhanced		ICTAD		concepts are prepared and published
infrastructure		climate		AchtFoU	·	Number of workshops in promoting
against heat		resilience		TCFoU		climate resilient building designs
and water				PCs	·	Number of public awareness programmes
stress				CHPB		conducted in promoting climate resilient
				SLSI		building designs
				ITI	·	Number of training workshops conducted
						for industry stakeholders in promoting
						climate resilient building designs
					·	Number of workshops in promoting use of
						alternative materials
					·	Number of public awareness programmes
						conducted in promoting use of alternative
						materials
					·	Number of training workshop conducted
						for industry stakeholders in promoting use
						of alternative materials
					·	A document contacting appropriate sector
						specific building standards for urban, rural
						and estate sectors are prepared and
						published

	B. Revision of procedures and guidelines	Revise building approval systems s to ensure climate resilience Expand the coverage of the guidelines to ensure climate resilience and minimize health impacts Strengthen the enforcement and implementation through local governments	UDA Las PCs	Number of workshops conducted in revising the building approval systems s to ensure climate resilience Number of awareness programmes conducted at the local government levels to Strengthen the enforcement and implementation through local governments
	C. Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts	Conduct research studies on Climate resilience building designs Practical applications of green building concepts Alternative materials	NBRO ICTAD CHPB AchFoU TCFoU NSF NRC	Amount of money allocated/spent on research activities Number of research activities conducted
	D. Sectoral Capacity development	Conduct training programmes for industry stakeholders Public officers Builders Construction workers Architects Designers Environmental design department of Universities, Ex: University of Moratuwa	ICTAD AchFoU TCFoU	Number of training programmes conducted Amount of money allocated/spent on training programmes
Minimize the impacts on human settlements and infrastructure due to erratic	A. Enhance the capacity of infrastructure in urban settlements	Extend the capacity of drainage and sewerage systems to avoid periodic overcrowding Rationale use of drainage infrastructure to encourage recharging of ground water systems	NWSDB UDA LAs PCs	Number of drainage and sewerage systems where the capacity is extended to avoid periodic overcrowding Number of workshops conducted in rationalizing the use of drainage infrastructure to encourage recharging of ground water systems

changes in precipitation	B. Promote water safety and efficient utilization of surplus water	Promote measures to ensure safety of domestic water for settlements Household water treatment and safe storage through point-of-use practices Strengthening the drinking water surveillance systems Domestic water recycling and re-using Promote use of rainwater harvesting systems to collect water in surplus periods to be used in the dry periods	NWSDB UDA LAs PCs	Number of workshops conducted in promoting measures to ensure safety of domestic water for settlements Number of workshops conducted in promoting the of rainwater harvesting systems to collect water in surplus periods to be used in the dry periods
Enhance the	A. Promotion of disaster resilient buildings and construction	Promote disaster resilient buildings (new constructions) Promote NBRO prepared guidelines Create public awareness Provide training to industry stakeholders Promote retrofitting of existing buildings Promote practice of building codes including roofing standards specially in the public buildings	NBRO NPPD UDA LAs PCs	Number of workshops conducted in promoting NBRO prepared guidelines for disaster resilient buildings Number of public awareness programmes conducted in promoting disaster resilient buildings Number of training programmes conducted for industry stakeholders for promoting disaster resilient buildings Number of workshops conducted in promoting practice of building codes including roofing standards specially in the public buildings
resilience of
human
settlements
and
infrastructure
to extreme
weather events
	B. Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management	Prepare hazard preparedness plans for urban, rural and estate settlements including hazard mapping disaster response planning awareness creation early warning Revisit existing preparedness plans for climate change Develop and enforce zoning system based on hazard vulnerability	DMC NPPD UDA NBRO	Number of hazard preparedness plans prepared for urban, rural and estate settlements including Number of awareness programmes conducted in developing and enforcing enforce zoning system based on hazard vulnerability

Minimize the	A. Increase the resilience of coastal settlements	Promote building standards which are specific to the coastal sector Encourage practicing building codes and standards Encourage use of proper materials in constructions Make appropriate considerations in relation to impacts on winds Create public awareness Provide training to industry stakeholders	CCD UDA NBRO DMC	Number of awareness workshops conducted in promoting building standards which are specific to the coastal sector Number of training programmes provided for industry stakeholders
impacts of sea
level rise on
coastal
settlements
and
infrastructure
	B. Strengthening the monitoring of sea level rise	Regular monitoring of sea level rise Prepare maps on low-lying areas vulnerable to inundation Demarcate coastal zones vulnerable to inundation Develop guidelines for human settlements and infrastructure in vulnerable zones	NARA DMC CCD NPPD NBRO	Quarterly monitoring reports are prepared on sea level rise Number of maps prepared on low-lying areas vulnerable to inundation Total coastal areas demarcated as vulnerable to inundation A guideline document is prepared and published for human settlements and infrastructure in vulnerable zones

Ecosystems and Biodiversity

Sri Lanka is one among 35 biodiversity hotspots in the world. The country was endowed with truly remarkable bequest of biodiversity and ecosystems. This includes both fauna and flora resources. Furthermore, Sri Lanka’s endowments cover terrestrial, aquatic as well marine ecosystems. Benefits of biodiversity and various ecosystem services for human well- being have been well recognized by numerous studies.

Simultaneously, climate is a primary factor that determines the geographical distribution of ecosystems and availability of biodiversity around the world. However, anthropogenic factors have caused the degradation of biodiversity and ecosystems within a relatively short period. Just over a century, country’s forest cover has reduced to a third of what it used to be.

Several species have been listed under endangered or threatened categories. Process of biodiversity and ecosystem losses are already in rise due to human activities. Climate change has a potential to top up this tendency. Impacts of climate change could be multifaceted with both negative and positive impacts. For instance, current predictions about gradual spread of the intermediate zone in to dry zone areas can bring in challenges as well as opportunities. Despite the potential impacts, we know very little about what changes have already taken place or where the ensuing changes would eventually lead. Hence, biodiversity and ecosystems are areas where Sri Lanka needs special attention when it comes to adaptation to climate change.

Table 11: Sector Action Plan – Ecosystems and Biodiversity

Adaptation needs	Adaptation options			Actions	Responsible agencies		Key performance indicators
Enhance the	A.	Initiating	·	Conduct research studies on climate change impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity Modelling impacts of climate change on bio-diversity Changing patterns of precipitation and boundary shifts of climatic zones Causal factors of forest die-back and degradation of ecosystems Traditional methods of biodiversity management Life cycle studies: e.g.in the sex ratios Ex-situ conservation .	FD	·	Amount of money allocated/spent on
resilience of		research studies			DWLC		research activities
natural and		to assess climate			DNBG	·	Number of research studies completed
agro		impacts			DNZG		and published
ecosystems					SFoU/AFoU
against the					DM
impacts of					IUCN
climate change					NARA
impacts					NSF

B. Extension of existing biodiversity protection interventions to cover climate change impacts	Prepare adaptive management programmes for climate sensitive ecosystems Identify and map ecosystems that are highly sensitive to climate impacts (‘hot spots’) Demarcate the vulnerable sites Prepare adaptive management programmes Protect marshes/flood retention areas vulnerable to thermal stress Identify threatened areas and map Restrict land conversion of wet lands Develop special management plans Enhance the enforcement of law Develop a comprehensive plan for mitigating wild/forest fire incidents Identify hazard prone areas and prepare maps Training of staff Acquire new equipment Increase awareness. Formation of CBOs Prepare recovery plans for highly threatened ecosystems are and species Ex-situ conservation of highly threatened species Captive breeding and propagation Reintroduction to natural systems	FD	·	Number of adaptive management
		DWLC		programmes prepared
		DNBG	·	Amount of money allocated/spent on
		DNZG		preparing adaptive management
		CCD		programmes
		NARA	·	Number of workshops conducted in
		IUCN		preparing the adaptive management
				programmes
			·	Number of special management plans
				developed for protecting marshes/flood
				retention areas vulnerable to thermal
				stress
			·	Number of threatened areas identified for
				protecting marshes/flood retention areas
				vulnerable to thermal stress
			·	% land area restricted to conserve
				wetlands
			·	Amount of money allocated/spent on
				enforcement activates
			·	Number of vulnerable areas with
				comprehensive plan for mitigating wild fire
				incidents
			·	Number of recovery plans prepared for
				highly threatened ecosystems are and
				species
C. Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts	Establish a comprehensive programme to monitor climate change impacts on key natural ecosystems and biodiversity (Focus: GIS mapping) Establish permanent monitoring plots for research on natural bio-diversity	FD	·	A comprehensive plan is established to
		DWLC		monitor climate change impacts on key
		CCD		natural ecosystems and biodiversity
		NARA	·	Number of monitoring plots established for
		IUCN		research on natural bio-diversity

D. Enhancing the participation of local communities in monitoring, conservation and management of biodiversity

Conduct awareness programmes for local communities on impacts on climate change local biodiversity and ecosystems in vulnerable areas
Organize local CBOs for monitoring changes in local ecosystems and bio diversity
Increase the participation of local communities in adaptive management programmes
- Increase employment opportunities for local communities in conservation activities

DF DWLC CCD NGOs

Number of awareness programmes conducted for local communities on impacts on climate change local biodiversity and ecosystems in vulnerable areas
Number of workshops/meetings with CBO’s to organize them for monitoring changes in local ecosystems and bio diversity
Ensure participation of local bodies
A monitoring system is established to ensure community participation in adaptive management programmes

E. Promotion of traditional methods of biodiversity conservation for increased resilience in

agro-ecosystems

Study and Identify traditional methods of biodiversity management in agro ecosystems
Identify and promote different agro- biodiversity models suitable for different agro-climatic zones
- Dry Zone: Cascade system
- Wet and intermediate zones: Kandyan home garden systems, Owita systems

FD DWLC DOA

SFoU/AFoU NGOs

Number of studies conducted and published to Identify traditional methods of biodiversity management in agro ecosystems
Number of agro-biodiversity models identified suitable for different agro- climatic zones

F. Sectoral Capacity development

Develop research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on climate change impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity
Strengthen the existing capacities for genetic preservation of fauna and flora.

FD DWLC NSF DOA

SFoU/AFoU IUCN

Amount of money allocated/spent on developing research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on climate change impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity
Number of studies conducted on genetic preservation of fauna and flora
Amount of money allocated on purchasing technical equipment for genetic preservation of fauna and flora

Enhance the resilience of natural and agro ecosystems against extreme weather events	A. Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management	·	Strengthen the early warning systems Identify and collect information on ecosystems and geographical locations most vulnerable to flood and drought hazards Prepare emergency response/contingency plans and guidelines for vulnerable areas	DMC DF DWLC	Money allocated/spent on activities to strengthen the early warning systems Number of geographical areas identified that are most vulnerable to flood and drought hazards Number of emergency response/contingency plans and guidelines prepared for vulnerable areas
Minimize the	A. Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts	·	Conduct research studies on sea level rise and salinity changes in coastal ecosystems Impacts of salinity changes in coastal biodiversity and eco-system services	NARA NSF CCD SFoU/AFoU IUCN	Number of research studies conducted on sea level rise and salinity changes in coastal ecosystems and • Impacts of salinity changes in coastal biodiversity and eco- system services Amount of money allocated/spent on research studies on sea level rise and salinity changes in coastal ecosystems and Impacts of salinity changes in coastal biodiversity and eco-system services
impacts of sea
level rise on
coastal bio-
diversity and
ecosystem
services
	B. Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts	·	Monitor regularly the development of salinity levels	CCD NARA	Quarterly monitoring reports produced on the development of salinity levels
Assess the	Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts	·	Assess changes in oceanic habitats and	NARA	Assessment report is finalized and published on oceanic habitats and composition of species due to impacts of climate change on oceanic environment Quarterly monitoring reports published on essential bio-physical parameters (National monitoring programme)
changes in			composition of species due to impacts of	CCD
oceanic			climate change on oceanic environment	NSF
environment				SFoU/AFoU
and impacts on livelihoods and food security		·	Initiate long-term monitoring of essential bio-physical parameters (National monitoring programme)	IUCN

Tourism and Recreation

Being a tropical island nation, Sri Lanka is an attractive destination for tourists. The protracted conflict since 1980s has discouraged the flow of tourists significantly over three decades. However, with the termination of war in 2009, arrival of tourists has increased steadily that reached new heights with further potential for development. Annual arrivals surpassed the one million mark recently and increasing steadily. Among the country’s attractions are scenic and sunny beaches, cultural heritage, ecological endowments of rich biodiversity, opportunities for nature recreation (e.g. whale watching, beach surfing, wild life) as well as comfortable climate zones. Climate change can affect desirable characteristics associated with each of those attractions, simultaneously creating problems for operational undertaking of travelling and leisure activities. Besides, it can affect infrastructure facilities of tourism industry making them vulnerable to various hazards. Tourism industry, by its nature, is highly sensitive and susceptible to disturbing conditions such as disasters and violence. Hence, maintaining Sri Lanka’s position as an attractive destination and ensuring efficient operation of the industry under rising incidence of climate hazards needs adopting carefully planned adaptation measures.

Table 12: Sector Action Plan – Tourism and Recreation

Adaptation needs	Adaptation options	Actions	Responsible agencies		Key performance indicators
Adjustment of	A. Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts	Conduct research studies on climate change impacts on tourism and recreation (Focus: nature based tourism, coastal zone) Critical impacts of climate change on tourism and recreation Ways to overcoming constraints on industry Ways to harnessing opportunities	SLTDA TFoU NSF	· ·	Number of research studies conducted and published on climate change impacts on tourism and recreation Amount of money allocated/spent on climate change impacts on tourism and recreation
tourism and
recreation
industry to
altered
conditions of
the
destination
	B. Operational adjustments in the industry	Diversify the tourism products to meet the changing conditions Increase the portfolio of destinations and attractions Embrace new tourism concepts Identify new themes (e.g. adventure tourism) Develop collaborative plans with key stakeholders to adjust tourism operations in different locations Nature tourism: Wildlife Dept., Forest Dept. Cultural tourism: Dept. Archeology Increase the awareness of tour industry operators on climate change and its impacts Prepare guidelines for operators and guides Increase the climate preparedness in organizing and implementing tour operations Identify comfort/discomfort zones Prepare toolkits/guidelines for operators and guides	SLTDA	·	Number of research/workshop conducted
			SLTPB		to identify new tourism concepts and
			TBSL		themes
			FD	·	Number of collaborative plans developed
			DWLC		to adjust tourism operations in different
			CCD		locations
			DArch	·	Number of workshops conducted to
			THASL		developed collaborative plans developed
					to adjust tourism operations in different
					locations
				·	Number of awareness programmes
					conducted to increase the awareness of
					tour industry operators on climate change
					and its impacts
				·	Number of initiatives taken to Improve the
					climate preparedness element in
					organizing and executing tour operations
				·	Number of tourism facilities identified in
					vulnerable areas (e.g. low-lying beaches;
					disaster prone areas) and make
					arrangements to improve the resilience

	C. Changing of promotional strategies	Assess the current promotional strategies with connection to emerging scenarios of climate change (Focus: beach tourism, nature destinations) Adjust the promotions to suit the different climate scenarios Promotions according to seasonal variations in climate Rebranding attractions to match the changing conditions Identification of alternative destinations	SLTDA	·	Assessment report on current promotional
			SLTPB		strategies with connection to emerging
			TBSL		scenarios of climate change is published
			FD	·	Number of initiatives taken to Adjust the
			DWLC		promotions to suit the different climate
			CCD		scenarios
			DArch
			THASL
Increase the	A. Improvement of emergency risk preparedness and management	Identify tourism facilities in vulnerable areas (e.g. low-lying beaches; disaster prone areas) and make arrangements to improve the resilience (Focus: vulnerability assessment, retrofitting, climate proofing) Prepare guidelines on managing emergencies in tour operations Train tour operators on emergency management strategies Design tourism infrastructure to meet the safety needs of operations Build system’s capacity for smooth switching to alternate plans Establish emergency communication channels for tourists and operators (Focus: mobile and internet based communication)	DMC	·	Guildlines on managing emergencies in
preparedness			SLTDA		tour operations are developed
of tourism and			SLTPB	·	Number of tour operators trained on
recreation			TBSL		emergency management strategies
operations to			THASL	·	Number of tourism infrastructures
extreme					designed to meet the safety needs of
weather					operations
conditions				·	Amount of money allocated on developing
					system’s capacity for smooth switching to
					alternate plans
				·	Amount of money allocated on establishing
					emergency communication channels for
					tourists and operators
	B. Establishment of	Develop a system for timely issuing of short-	DM	·	A system is developed for timely issuing of
	an efficient	term weather forecasts	SLTDA		short-term weather forecasts
	climate	Strengthen the early warning systems	SLTPB	·	Number of initiatives taken to strengthen
	information	(Focus: mobile and internet based	TBSL		the early warning systems
	management	communication)	THASL
	and		DMC
	communication
	system

Export Agriculture Sector

All governments of Sri Lanka have been striving to achieve an export-led growth for the economy. Until the final quarter of the last century, Sri Lanka remained highly dependent over three agricultural commodities—tea, rubber and coconut—for a major share of its export earnings. Liberal economic reforms introduced in 1977 has transformed the structure of the export sector significantly, apparel industry becoming the major source of foreign earnings. Despite the reduction of relative share of agricultural exports, however, they continued to grow and still contribute a significant share of foreign earnings. Besides, three major agricultural commodities, spice crops, floriculture, aquaculture products, and non-traditional exports such as herbal products have also grown recently. Sri Lanka’s economy needs the continuous support of this sector and there is significant unrealized potential yet to explore. Unlike seasonal agricultural crops that supports the country’s food security, majority of export agricultural commodities are perennial in nature and concentrated in wet zone areas of the country. However, being agricultural commodities, they are also sensitive to changing patterns of weather and climate. Unlike in the past when major export commodities had been produced in large estates run by companies, current production base of agricultural commodities is dominated by small-scale producers. Hence, climate change impacts on these commodities can create significant livelihood outcomes affecting a large section of population in the country. High climate sensitivity and dependence by a large segment of small producers for their livelihoods make export agricultural sector a vulnerable area that needs special measures of adaptation to cope with impending changes of climate.

Table 13: Sector Action Plan – Export Agriculture Sector

(Focus: tea, rubber, coconut, coffee, cocoa, spices, cashew and sugarcane1)

Adaptation needs	Adaptation options	Actions	Responsible agencies		Key performance indicators
Enhance the	A. Germ plasm improvements	Screen existing cultivars/clones for heat and water stress. Introduce new cultivars /clones Heat tolerant Drought tolerant Flood tolerant Develop grafted/budded plants with drought resistance properties	MOPI TRI RRI CRI DEA SLCC SRI AFoU	· · ·	Number of existing cultivars/clones for heat and water stress Number of new cultivars /clones introduced Number of grafted/budded plants developed with drought resistance properties
resilience of
export
agricultural
crops and
agro-
ecosystems
against heat
and water	B. Improvement of farm and nursery management practices	Improve the management of shade trees as a climate change adaptation measure Conduct nursery and field trials Develop recommendations and guidelines Promote suitable operational and management techniques Application of Anti-transpirents (rubber) Drip irrigation (with the new expansions in dry zone) Mulching Intercropping with spices Develop improved cropping system models for vulnerable areas/lands Promote improved nursery and plant management practices New soil mixtures Use soil quality index Use of machinery for replanting	MOPI TRI TBSL TSHDA RRI RDD CRI CDA CCB DEA SLCC SRI NIPM	· · · · · ·	Number of nursery and field trials conducted to Improve the management of shade trees as a climate change adaptation measure Number of guidelines developed to Improve the management of shade trees as a climate change adaptation measure Number of promotional workshops completed for promoting suitable operational and management techniques Number of improved cropping system models developed for vulnerable areas/land Number of improved nursery and plant management practices promoted Number of promotional workshops to promote improved nursery and plant management practices
stress

1 Sugar cane is not an export crop in Sri Lanka. However it is managed as a plantation crop. Therefore adaptation of sugarcane is taken into consideration under this section.

	Improvements in irrigation: nursery and new plantings New planting techniques: root trainers Improve soil organic matter: Bio- fertilizer development:
		C. Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts	Conduct research studies on Crop physiology: heat and drought resistance Physiology of flowering: Synchronizing of flower irregularities Resistance cultivars Inter cropping: banana, cocoa, cash crops such as maize Deep planting: at nursery and replanting levels Cropping systems for climate resilience	MOPI TRI RRI CRI DEA SLCC SRI AFoU	Number of research studies conducted and published Amount of money allocated/spent on research studies
		D. Sector capacity development	Develop research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on tolerant cultivars/clones Develop facilities necessary to undertake controlled environment research	MOPI TRI RRI CRI DEA SLCC SRI AFoU NSF	Amount of money allocated/spent on developing research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on tolerant cultivars/clones Amount of money allocated/spent on developing facilities necessary to undertake controlled environment research
Minimize the risk of crop damage due to biological agents	A.	Germ plasm improvements	Screen existing cultivars/clones for pest and disease resistance. Develop pest and diseases resistant varieties	MOPI TRI RRI CRI DEA SLCC SRI AFoU	Number of existing cultivars/clones screened for pest and disease resistance Number of pest and diseases resistant varieties

	B. Improvement of farm and nursery management practices	·	Develop recommendations on best practices of pest and disease management through improvements in: Shade tree management Nursery management Crop sanitation	MOPI TRI RRI CRI DEA SLCC SRI	·	Number of recommendations developed on best practices of pest and disease management through improvements
	C. Monitoring and surveillance of pest and disease	· ·	Establish a surveillance programme for early detection of new diseases and pests Develop a system forecasting risks of pest and diseases	MOPI TRI RRI CRI DEA SLCC SRI	· ·	A surveillance programme established for early detection of new diseases and pests A system forecasting risks of pest and diseases developed
Minimize the	A. Establishment of an efficient climate information management and communication system	· ·	Develop a system for timely issuing of seasonal and short-term weather forecasts Adjust calendar of operations with seasonal weather forecasts	DM TRI RRI CRI DEA SLCC SRI	· ·	A system is developed for timely issuing of seasonal and short-term weather forecasts A calendar of operations is adjusted with seasonal weather forecasts
impact on
export
eranings due
to erratic
changes in
precipitation
	B. Improvements in	·	Promote sustainable cropping system practices for increasing the resilience of plantations and trees Rainwater harvesting Shade tree management Agro-forestry and timber plantations Cover crops Contour drains Land suitability assessment (e.g. 60% slope) Soil and moisture conservation practices	MOPI	·	Number of money allocated/spent on
	cropping systems			TRI		promoting sustainable cropping system
				TBSL		practices for increasing the resilience of
				TSHDA		plantations and trees
				RRI	·	Number of sustainable cropping system
				RDD		practices promoted for increasing the
				CRI		resilience of plantations and trees
				CDA	·	Number of promotional workshops
				CCB		conducted to promote sustainable
				DEA		cropping system practices for increasing
				SLCC		the resilience of plantations and trees
				SRI
				NIPM

Enhance the resilience of export crops and agro- ecosystems to extreme weather events	A. Establishment of an efficient climate information management and communication system		Develop a system for timely issuing of short-term weather forecasts Strengthen the early warning systems	DM TRI RRI CRI DEA SLCC SRI	A system is developed for timely issuing of short-term weather forecasts Money allocated/spent on strengthening the early warning systems
	B. Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management		Identify and collect information on areas most vulnerable to flood and drought hazards Prepare hazard vulnerability maps for all crops Develop guidelines for management of extreme events in vulnerable areas	DMC TRI RRI CRI DEA SLCC SRI	Number of areas identified and data collected on most vulnerable to flood and drought hazards Number of plans developed for areas that are most vulnerable to flood and drought hazards Number of guidelines developed for areas most vulnerable to flood and drought hazards (extreme events)
Minimize the	A.	Strengthening the	Monitor regularly the development of salinity levels construct salinity exclusion structures and salinity barriers to control sea water intrusions to agricultural lands	NARA	Quarterly monitoring reports on development of salinity levels are published Number of money allocated/spent on constructing salinity exclusion structures and salinity barriers to control sea water intrusions to agricultural lands Number of salinity exclusion structures and salinity barriers to control sea water intrusions to agricultural lands constructed
impacts of sea		monitoring of climate		CCD
level rise on		impacts		CRI
export crops				SLCC
in coastal zone	B.	Development of		DEA
		protection structures

Table 14: Sector Action Plan – Industry, Energy and Transportation

Adaptation needs	Adaptation options	Actions	Responsible agencies		Key performance indicators
Minimize the	A. System improvements and diversification of energy and power generation	Minimize the fluctuation of hydro power generation potential through improvements in system management Prepare and implement watershed management plans in major-hydro and mini-hydro reservoirs Plan the generation using short-term and seasonal forecast of weather Explore alternatives for maximizing the use of hydro power facilities: e.g. pumped- storage hydroelectricity Improve the efficiency of transmission and distribution systems to minimize losses Diversify the energy mix with increased share of renewable energy (Focus: recommendations on TNA-Energy Sector) Factor in climate change into long-term generation plans	CEB SEA DM EFoU	· · ·	Amount of money allocated/spent on minimizing the fluctuation of hydro power generation potential through improvements in system management Number of alternatives for maximizing the use of hydro facilities: e.g. pump storage explored and identified Number of workshops conducted on improving the efficiency of transmission and distribution systems to minimize losses, diversifying the energy mix with increased share of renewable energy (TNA recommendations) and factoring climate change into long-term generation plans
impacts of
rising
temperature
and periodic
scarcity of
water on
energy,
industry and
transportation
	B. Supply chain improvements in agro-based raw materials	Diversify the supply sources: Identify climate sensitive raw materials Assess the specific vulnerabilities Promote the production in wider range of locations Develop forward contract markets for agro- based raw materials Introduce innovative risk transfer instruments	IDB ITI DOA NCPC	· · ·	Number of workshops conducted on identifying climate sensitive raw materials, assessing the specific vulnerabilities and promoting the production in wider range of locations Number of forward contracts developed for markets for agro-based raw materials Number of innovative risk transfer instruments introduced

	C. Initiating research studies to assess climate change impacts	Conduct research studies on impacts of climate change on energy, transportation and industry Explore and assess the potential for establishing pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH) plants and conversion/ retrofitting of existing facilities to PSH plants Identify climate sensitive agro-based raw materials and assess alternatives to ensure stable supply Assess the impacts of climate change impacts on transport systems and road infrastructure	CEB	·	An assessment report on the potential for
			SEA		developing (and retrofitting) pumped-
			ITI		storage hydroelectricity facilities is
			NERD		completed and published
			RDA	·	Number of research studies conducted
			EFoU
Minimize the	A. Improvement of the climate resilience and disaster risk preparedness of transportation	Assess the impacts of projected changes and extreme weather scenarios on transportation systems Assess vulnerable and hazard prone areas/roads and prepare maps Identification of climate resilient improvements in Transport planning Infrastructure development Implementation of plans Develop guidelines for improve the resilience of transportation system for extreme weather situations Create awareness on climate risks in transportation to commuters, drivers and transport operators Establish an early warning and hazard communication systems for commuters and drivers (Focus: mobile phones, navigation systems, radio channels)	DMC	·	An assessment report on the impacts of
impacts of			MOT		projected changes and extreme weather
extreme			DMT		scenarios on transportation systems I
weather events			SLR		completed and published
on energy,			SLTB	·	Number of areas with hazard prone
industry and			RPTAs (PC)		areas/roads maps
transportation			RDA	·	A guideline report to improve the
					resilience of transportation system for
					extreme weather situations is completed
					and published
				·	Number of awareness programmes
					conducted on climate risks in
					transportation to commuters, drivers and
					transport operators
				·	An early warning and hazard
					communication system is established for
					commuters and drivers

B. Development of climate resilient infrastructure and production facilities

Promote climate proof infrastructure and building design practices
- identify design improvements for transport, energy and industry sector
- Develop guidelines
- Create awareness among planners, builders and operators of facilities
- Develop and conduct training programs
- Assess suitable interventions to strengthen climate resilience of energy sector and industrial facilities to extreme events
  - Introduce ‘climate proofing’ improvements
  - Retrofitting
  - Relocation of facilitates (if necessary)

NBRO NERD ITI

EFoU/AFoU

Number of awareness programmes on promoting climate proof infrastructure and building design practices

Guideline report on promoting climate proof infrastructure and building design practices is prepared and published Number of critically vulnerable energy and industrial facilities in hazard prone areas identified

An assessment report on suitable interventions to strengthen climate resilience is prepared and published

C. Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management

Identify vulnerable areas for climate-induced disaster risks on energy, transportation and industrial facilities and prepare maps
Develop a system for timely issuing of short- term weather forecasts
Establish an early warning system of disasters to energy, transport and industry managers

DMC DM

Number of vulnerable areas identified and maps prepared for climate-induced disaster risks

A system is developed for timely issuing of short-term weather forecasts

An early warning system is established for energy, transportation and industrial managers

Minimize the impacts of sea level rise on energy, transportation and industrial facilities

A. Strengthening the monitoring of sea level rise

Regular monitoring of sea level rise
Prepare maps on low-lying areas vulnerable to inundation
Demarcate coastal zones vulnerable to inundation
Develop guidelines for economic activities in vulnerable areas

CCD NARA

Quarterly monitoring reports on of sea level rise is prepared and published Number of maps prepared on low-lying areas vulnerable to inundation

Total coastal areas demarcated with vulnerability to inundation Guideline are prepared for economic

activities in vulnerable zones and published

B. Increase the preparedness for sea level rise	Identify critically vulnerable energy, transportation and industrial facilities in vulnerable areas to inundation Develop contingency plans to gradual relocation and development of alternatives	MOI	·	Number of critically vulnerable energy,
		MOE		transportation and industrial facilities in
		MOT		vulnerable zones to inundation identified
		DMC	·	Number of contingency plans developed
		CCD		to gradual relocation and development of
				alternatives
C. Initiating research studies to assess climate change impacts	Conduct research studies on impact of climate change on industries located in coastal areas (Focus: salt, coir and coconut- based industries, mineral sands, boat building industries) Identify adaptation actions suitable for respective industries	MOI	·	Number of research studies conducted to
		ITI		assess the vulnerability of industries based
		IDB		on coastal areas
		NERD	·	Number of adaptation actions identified
				that are suitable for respective industries

7.6. Plan for Cross-cutting National Needs of Adaptation

Action plan for cross-cutting needs contain actions/interventions proposed to fulfill adaptation needs of ten interest areas. These areas were identified through analysis of common sectoral needs and opinions of stakeholders. The actions of cross-cutting plan have been selected to fulfil national level adaptation needs. Action plan on cross-cutting adaptation needs begin with specific interest areas followed by details on actions, responsible agencies and key performance indicators. The specific institutional and implementation mechanisms proposed for implementation of cross-cutting plan are presented in forthcoming sections of the plan. Table 23 presents the action plans for cross-cutting adaptation needs.

Table 15: Action Plan – Cross-cutting Needs of Adaptation

Cross cutting area	Action	Responsibility	Key performance indicators
Policy, legal	Undertake a review of relevant macro and sectoral policies,	MOEnv	A review report is prepared and published on relevant
economics and	ordinances, acts, statutes and procedures to identify	CCS	macro and sectoral policies, acts and procedures to
governance	options for mainstreaming climate change adaptation		identify options for mainstreaming climate change
	activities in Sri Lanka		adaptation activities in Sri Lanka
	Develop policy recommendations necessary for addressing vulnerability to impacts of climate change in all development /management projects in terms of : Assessing the climate vulnerability and sensitivity of projects (climate impact assessment); Ensuring the inclusion of adaptive responses to overcomer climate vulnerabilities; Implementation and monitoring of proposed adaptive actions	MOEnv CCS	Number of policy recommendation developed for ensuring climate vulnerability issues are addressed in all development /management projects An assessment report on the the climate vulnerability and sensitivity of projects (climate impact assessment) is prepared and published
	Carry out a policy study to explore the possibilities for: Application of market-based instruments to motivate adaptive actions Assessing feasibility of introducing innovative risk transfer tools (Focus: climate insurance schemes)	MOEnv CCS	A policy study is finished and published to explore the possibilities for application of market-based instruments to motivate adaptive actions and identify and assess feasibility of introducing innovative risk transfer tools (e.g. index insurance schemes)
Institutional and coordination	Restructure and strengthen the Climate Change Secretariat as the National Focal Point (NFP) for implementation of NAP: Increase the strength of staff Provide training for professional staff Provide necessary capacity building support for NAP implementation Allocate sufficient budgetary provisions	MOEnv MOF CCS	Number of staff increased Number of training provided for professional staff Number of capacity building workshops conducted Amount of money allocated to restructure and strengthen the Climate Change Secretariat as the National Focal Point (NFP) for implementation of NAP

	Establish a suitable institutional mechanism for implementation of sectoral and cross-cutting actions of NAP. Climate Adaptation Cells (CAC) for implementation of sectoral adaptation plans. To be represented by relevant sectoral agencies National Working Group (NWG) for implementation of cross-cutting adaptation interventions. To be represented by national lead agencies Provincial Adaptation Cells (PAC) for implementation of actions to be undertaken in provincial areas. To be represented by provincial agencies		Climate action cells are established for implementation of sectoral adaptation plans. To be represented by relevant sectoral agencies National Working Group (NWG) is established for implementation of cross-cutting adaptation interventions. To be represented by national lead agencies
	Organize a Forum of Civil Society Organizations (FCSO), a group of partner agencies, to support the implementation and coordination of community-based sectoral and cross- cutting interventions proposed by NAP	MOEnv CCS	A Forum of Civil Society Organizations (FCSO) is organized
International	Develop an inventory of international climate donors,	CCS	An inventory of international climate donors, funding
cooperation	funding schemes, training providers, training programmes,	MOFA	schemes, training providers, training programmes,
and	research agencies/consortiums and events (conferences,	ERD	research agencies/consortiums and events
partnerships	seminars etc.) for the benefit of local stakeholders of		(conferences, seminars etc.) is developed
	adaptation.
	Establish a network of sectoral and national agencies, CSO partners, research institutes, think tanks and academics to approach international service providers through the facilitation support of the National Focal Point for funding support, technical assistance or training necessary for adaptation actions identified in NAP or supportive programmes developed to achieve the NAP objectives	MOEnv CCS NSF CSOs	A network of sectoral and national agencies, CSO partners, research institutes, think tanks and academics is established
	Identify a group of sectoral and national level representatives from government organizations, CSOs and private sector to create a pool of climate negotiators Develop the negotiation skills through training Establish a facilitative mechanism for enlisting their services according to the requirement s through the National Focal Point	MOEnv MOFA CCS SLIDA	Number of training programme conducted in developing the negotiation skills A facilitative mechanism is established for enlisting services of trained negotiators according to the requirement s of the NAP programs

Resource mobilization	Create a National Adaptation Fund with the collaboration of the Ministry of Finance to support the implementation of NAP actions and supportive programmes	MOF MOEnv CCS	· · ·	A National Adaptation Fund is created Amount of money allocated Number activities/programmes funded
	Develop a ‘fast track’ mechanism for approving requests for donor funding for climate adaptation projects through the collaboration of the National Focal Point and the External Resources Department	MOF MOEnv CCS ERD	·	A fast track mechanism is developed for approving requests for donor funding for climate adaptation projects
	Negotiate and establish a state-private partnership trust fund for attracting and channelling corporate social responsibility (CSR) funding for climate adaptation projects with the support of the Finance Ministry and corporate sector members	MOF MOEnv CCS NCC FCCISL	·	A partnership trust fund with the corporate sector for channelling CSR funding for climate adaptation projects is negotiated and established
Research and	Establish national level controlled environment research	NSF	·	Number of national level controlled environment
development	facilities in selected institutes for facilitation of multi-	NRC		research facilities established
	disciplinary research		·	Amount of money allocated for controlled
				environment research
	Establish a national network of research agencies and universities that are carrying out research on climate adaptation for promoting coordinated research and information dissemination	NSF NRC CARP	·	A national network of research agencies and individual researchers on climate adaptation is established
	Organize an annual multi-disciplinary research symposium on climate change adaptation with international participation.	CCS NSF	·	Number of annual multi-disciplinary research symposiums on climate change adaptation with international participation are conducted
	Develop a coordinated multi-disciplinary small research	CCS	·	A coordinated multi-disciplinary small research grant
	grant programme on thematic areas relating to climate	NSF		programme is developed
	change adaptation to be facilitated by the National Focal	CARP
	Point and managed by the national research support	NRC
	agencies (e.g. NSF, NRC, CARP)
	Undertake advanced multidisciplinary studies on selected core areas of nationally important climate change adaptation issues supported by national and international donor funding (Focus: germ plasm improvements; climate modelling; stress physiology; climate information products)	NSF NRC CCS	·	A funding facility for advanced studies on selected core areas of nationally important research is created
	Establish a common repository of scientific and awareness materials on climate change adaptation	CCS NSF	·	A common repository of scientific and awareness materials on climate change adaptation is established

Technology	Identify international technology transfer service providers	CCS	·	Number of international technology transfer service
transfer and	and technology developers and negotiate with them to			providers and technology developers identified
standards	establish technology and skills transfer opportunities for		·	Number of negotiations completed
	local researchers, trainers, experts, technology users and
	students
	Organize national level technology transfer events and programmes (e.g. dissemination programmes, exhibitions, training programmes and demonstrations) to transfer technology/knowledge from developers and experts to technology users	CCS NSF	·	Number of national level technology transfer events and programmes organized
Building	Develop a small grant facility jointly coordinated by CSO	CCS	·	A small grant facility to provide seed funding for
adaptive	Forum and the National Focal Point to provide seed funding	CSOs		community-based programmes helpful for achieving
capacity of	for community-based adaptation programmes to be			NAP objectives is developed
communities	financed through the National Climate Adaptation Fund
	Launch a partnership programme of academics, CSO members and researchers for gathering, compiling, documentation and analyzing of traditional local knowledge systems on climate and indigenous forecasting to be used in developing participatory community-based adaptation programmes.	CCS CSOs AFoU	·	A programme for gathering, compiling and documentation of traditional local knowledge is completed
	Initiate a joint island wide programme for identification of	MOCA	·	An island wide program is initiated for identification
	religious, cultural and archaeological assets vulnerable to	DOArch		and vulnerability assessment of religious, cultural and
	climate change impacts with the participation of experts	PGIArch		archaeological assets threatened by climate change
	(on archaeology, culture, religious affairs), CSO members	DCA
	and local communities for conservation of threatened	ROs
	assets.	CSOs
Education, training and awareness	Conduct training programmes for government officers, CSO members, and private sector employees on climate change adaptation	CCS SLIDA	·	Number of training programmes developed and conducted for government officers, CSO members, and private sector employees on climate change adaptation
	Incorporate and further strengthen climate change	CCS	·	An assessment report on the current contents of
	knowledge in formal education—school and university	MOE		school and university curricula to improve them
	curricula	DE		further is completed and published
		NIE
		UGC

Establish a media space including social media for climate change impacts and adaptation to enhance public awareness		MOEnv MOMMI CSOs	A media space is created for climate change adaptation to enhance public awareness Number of awareness initiatives taken by the established media space
Climate information management	Establish a National Task Force on Climate Information Products to strengthen current efforts for developing seasonal and sub-season climate forecasts: Identify climate and weather forecast needs of different stakeholders Identify a set of essential short-term and seasonal weather forecasting products Launch a national programme for producing selected weather forecasting products with international technical support Identify a suitable communication strategy for ensuring timely reach of information to end users and implement it	DM CCS DMC DOA	A National Task Force on Climate Information Products to strengthen current efforts for developing weather forecasts is organized Number of workshops conducted in identifying climate and weather forecast needs of different stakeholders and set of essential short-term and seasonal weather forecasting products A national programme is launched for producing selected weather forecasting products with international technical support A suitable communication strategy for ensuring timely reach of information to end users is identified and implemented
	Identify capacity development needs of the Department of Meteorology and provide necessary support to strengthen the capacity for offering reliable weather and seasonal and sub-season climate forecasts. Increase the strength of staff Provide training for professional staff Provide necessary capacity building support for NAP implementation Strengthen the network of meteorological data collection centres Allocate sufficient budgetary provisions	DM MOF	Number of staff increased and number of training programmes conducted for professional staff. Number money allocated/spent on capacity building support for NAP implementation and strengthening the network of meteorological data collection centres
	Undertake a study on indigenous short- and medium-range DM weather forecasting knowledge and identify ways to CCS incorporate it into a national climate risk surveillance DOA programme. AFoU/SFoU/EF Explore the modalities developed in other oU countries NSF Recruit trained local weather observers A study is undertaken and completed on indigenous weather forecasting knowledge and ways are identified to incorporate it into a national climate risk surveillance programme

Establish a national research programme on climate		DM	·	A national research programme is established on
modelling for long-term climate projections		DOA		climate modelling for long-term projections
		AFoU/SFoU/EF	·	Number of research studies conducted and published
		oU		under the established research programme
		NSF
		NRC
Climate-	Assess the disaster risk reduction needs of sectoral Climate	MODM	·	A coordination committee is established
induced	Adaptation Cells (identified in NAP) and mainstream the	DMC	·	An assessment report is prepared and published by the
disaster risk	implementation of them with ongoing programmes of	CCS		established committee on disaster risk needs of sectoral
reduction	disaster risk management			Climate Adaptation Cells

8. Institutional and Coordination Mechanism

Given the comprehensive nature of the plan, it should be coordinated properly at both levels of implementation, namely, sector level and national level. Therefore, a suitable institutional and coordination mechanism is an indispensable component of the plan. Essential elements of the coordination mechanism are:

National Focal Point
Climate Adaptation Cells for Sectors
National Working Group for Cross-cutting National Adaptation Needs
CSO Forum

8.1. National Focal Point (NFP)

The National Focal Point (NFP) takes the responsibility of overall coordination of the plan. According to the current institutional set-up, CCS is the most suitable agency to undertake this task. It is necessary to strengthen the capacity of CCS through providing necessary resources and enhancing its staff skills through training.

8.2. Sectoral Climate Cells (SCC) for Sectors

Sectoral Climate Cells (SCC) will be established for vulnerable sectors to coordinate activities within respective sectors. It shall be represented by members of state agencies, private sector, community organizations and NGOs who are key stakeholders of a given sector. For instance, climate cell of the coastal sector should be represented by state agencies such as Coastal Conservation Department, Fisheries Department, NARA and private, community and non- government organizations involved in the coastal sector. Climate cell of a given sector/area should coordinate all activities pertaining to implementation and monitoring of activities of that entity.

Nine vulnerable sectors shall be organized under four SCCs as follows.

Climate Cell 1: Food security and water
Climate Cell 2: Bio-diversity and coastal resources
Climate Cell 3: Health
Climate Cell 4: Human settlements and infrastructure
Climate Cell 5: Tourism, energy industry and infrastructure
Climate Cell 6: Export agriculture

A climate cell will always be coordinated by a representative of CCS. Other government representatives will be nominated by the heads of those agencies upon the request of the

Secretary of the Ministry of Environment. Non-governmental representatives will be invited by the Ministry of Environment. SCCs shall have the full responsibility of implementation of sector action plans with the coordination support from CCS.

8.3. National Working Group for Cross-cutting National Adaptation Needs (NWG)

National Working Group (NWG) will be a consortium of national lead agencies and non-state representatives, again coordinated by staff members of CCS. The NWG has the responsibility of implementation of adaptation actions relating to cross-cutting national issues. National lead agencies are organizations that look after subjects with cross-cutting mandate. Some examples are Department of Meteorology (climate information), National Science Foundation (research) and Disaster Management Centre (disaster risk management). Cross-cutting issues are national level issues. As in the case of SCCs, government representatives shall be ex-officio members nominated by heads of lead agencies upon the request of Secretary, Environment whereas non- governmental members shall be appointed on invitation. Some lead agencies responsible for cross-cutting issues are:

Policy legislations and governance: Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment, Climate Change Secretariat, Ministry of Policy Planning
- Institutional development: Ministry of Mahaweli Development and Environment, Climate Change Secretariat
- International co-operation and partnerships: External Resources Department, Ministry of Foreign Affairs
- Resource mobilization: Ministry of Finance, External Resources Department
  - Research and development: Ministry of Science and Technology, National Science Foundation, National Research Council, National Science and Technology Commission
  - Technology transfer: Ministry of Science and Technology, National Science Foundation, National Research Council, National Science and Technology Commission
  - Education, Training and awareness: Ministry of Mass Media and Information, Ministry of Education, government media agencies, private media agencies, local and international non-governmental organizations, community based organizations
  - Extreme events management: Ministry of Disaster Management, Disaster Management Centre, National Building Research Organization, Sri Lanka Land Reclamation and Development Corporation
  - Climate information management: Department of Meteorology, Ministry of Disaster Management, government media agencies, private media agencies
  - Building adaptive capacity: Ministry of Local governments and Provincial Councils, , local and international non-governmental organizations, community based organizations, Ministry of Disaster Management

8.4. Regional Climate Cells (RCCs)

Regional Climate Cells (RCCs) will be set up according to the requirement for implementation of actions that are specific to a given regional area. These will be represented by the representatives of Provincial Councils, local government bodies, District and Divisional Secretariats in relevant areas upon the request of the Ministry of Environment.

8.5. CSO Forum

Forum of Civil Society Organizations, a group of partner agencies, will be a coordination body established to support actions that have grass root level operations. It will be established to support the implementation and coordination of community-based interventions involved with sectoral and cross-cutting levels proposed by NAP. It will function as a supporting body for both CACs and the NWG.

8.6. National Adaptation Committee (NAC)

National Adaptation Committee (NAC) is an already appointed body of technical experts functioning in the advisory capacity. The NAC will continue to function in the same advisory capacity and expected to fulfil an extended role with the launching of NAP. All other institutional bodies will be provided the opportunity for benefiting from the technical advices of the NAC through NFP and NSC. Technical Issues arising from implementation of the Plan will be forwarded to NAC that will be taken up in periodic meetings of NAC or individual experts according to the technical subjects involved.

8.7. National Steering Committee (NSC)

National Steering Committee (NSC) will be the overall supervisory body of the plan implementation. It will be represented by the selected members of SCCs, RCCs, the NWG and CSOs appointed by the Ministry of Environment. Members will be appointed to represent all sectors and regions as far as possible. The main roles of the NSC will be providing the overall leadership for implementation of the Plan, monitoring the progress of implementation, guiding the periodic review of the Plan according to the schedule and making decisions on necessary course correction adjustments.

Figure 3: Structure of Institute and Coordination Mechanism

9. Implementation Strategy

The key objectives of the implementation strategy are efficient implementation of planned actions of adaptation on a realistic timeframe and ensuring the participation of all stakeholders from government, private sector, academia, civil society organizations and local communities to achieve the maximum level of cooperation.

The NAP identifies adaptation actions at three levels.

Sector level actions: These actions are focused on individual sectors or joint sectoral actions
National level actions: These actions are focused on cross-cutting issues
Community level actions: Actions that are targeted at the grass-root level

9.1. Implementation of Sector Level Actions

Sector level actions will be implemented by SCCs. The role of CCS within a climate cell is facilitation and coordination. Climate cells will function as working groups on sectoral adaptation actions. Adaptation actions within a cell may involve interventions confined to individual sectors as well actions that need joint implementation with other cells (e.g. drinking water (water) and housing (human settlements). For actions confined to individual sectors, the responsible line agency (or agencies) may directly coordinate with CCS to implement the action within the purview of the cell. CCS may facilitate by helping to attract necessary financial opportunities and other resources. In case of actions that need joint implementation by agencies coming under different SCCs, the CCS, as the common coordinator of all cells, may facilitate creating inter-cell linkages. Hence, CCS is supposed fulfill intra-cell as well inter-cell coordination.

9.2. Implementation of National Level (cross-cutting) Actions

National level adaptation actions that deal with cross-cutting issues will be handled by the NWG. The convener of the working group is CCS and other members are national lead agencies. National level actions may require coordination among lead agencies within the NWG as well as coordination between lead agencies (of NWG) and sectoral line agencies (SCCs). Again the CCS shall act as the common facilitator within the NWG as well as between NWG and SCCs. This is critical for integrated actions and could help forging ‘fast track’ channels for fundraising from national and international sources.

9.3. Implementation of Regional Level Actions

Sector level actions will be implemented by SCCs. The role of CCS within a climate cell is

facilitation and coordination. Climate cells will function as working groups on sectoral adaptation actions. Adaptation actions within a cell may involve interventions confined to individual sectors as well actions that need joint implementation with other cells (e.g. drinking water (water) and housing (human settlements).

9.4. Implementation of Community Level Actions

Membership of the NWG as well as SCCs shall include representatives from CSOs and community organizations. Besides, there is CSO Forum. Both, sectoral and national level actions may need working at the grass-root level with local communities and CSOs. Actions that need to be focused at the community level could use the help of community organizations and CSOs that include both national and international NGOs. These organizations can act as mobilizers for community level actions. The CSO forum provides an additional platform for coordination among such organizations.

9.5. Monitoring and Evaluation

The NAP is a rolling plan with a 10 year time horizon. Hence, setting up of a viable mechanism for monitoring the progress of implementation should be an essential component of the Plan. Moreover, given the uncertainties involved with climate change impacts and rapidly increasing knowledge on the subject, updating the Plan periodically to match the changing conditions, increased understanding of issues and new information acquired also is mandatory.

Progress monitoring of the Plan: Progress of the plan to be monitored against the time plan of actions presented in Tables A10-A19. Progress of the each sectoral plan and the cross-cutting plan are to be reviewed bi-annually by the respective SCCs and the NWG. Similarly, progress of regional and community-based actions is to be monitored every six months by RCCs and the CSO Forum. At the end of each year, progress of all sectors and the cross-cutting action plan shall be reviewed by the NSC at an Annual Progress Meeting where necessary path correction decisions will be taken. To undertake the monitoring in an objective manner, all SCCs, RCCs, NWG and the CSO forum will have to prepare suitable log frame structures for each sector and cross-cutting area.

Periodic revision and updating of the Plan: The NAP as a rolling plan shall undergo two periodic revisions for updating the overall plan as follows.

First periodic revision: The first three years of the Plan will be the Foundation Building Stage. At the end of this phase plan will have to undergo and periodic revision and updating. This will take place in the final quarter of the third year and the updated plan will be submitted for approval of the Annual Progress Meeting of the third year. The revision has to be undertaken through an extensive consultation of stakeholders at decision-making as well as field level.

Second periodic revision: The Plan enters the Development Stage after the first periodic revision. At the end of this stage, the second periodic revision will be conducted. The second periodic revision of the NAP shall be carried out in the final quarter of the third year and the updated plan will be submitted for approval of the 6th Annual Progress Meeting.

The post-plan review: The last four years of the plan will be the Goal Achieving Stage. After the completion of the 10th year of the Plan, a post-Plan review shall be undertaken to assess the overall achievements of the Plan and identify the lessons for future plans.

10. Resource Mobilization Mechanism

Resource mobilization is a major issue to be faced in all adaptation interventions in Sri Lanka. Therefore success of achieving the goals of the plan depends heavily on devising an effective mechanism for resource mobilization. It should be a proactive programme for acquiring resources necessary for implementation of the plan.

10.1. Types of Resources Needed

Implementation of NAP requires many resources in the form of financial, technical and human resources. Almost all the activities require financial resources while some may need technical and human resources also. Quite often, sourcing of the technical and human resources are conditional upon the access to financial resources. Therefore among resources, financial resources are the most critical for implementation of the adaptation actions both at national and sector levels. Following main sources are proposed in securing the necessary resources for adaptation actions.

10.2. Sources of Financing

National Adaptation Fund (NAF): The plan proposes to establish a National Adaptation Fund (NAF). The NAF will have seed funding from the government budget as an annual allocation for a specified period. In addition, the government shall seek co-financing from donor community to develop an endowment for supporting all types of adaptation actions in Sri Lanka. This fund will provide opportunities for fully funded initiatives and co-funded opportunities. For example, NAF will share a part of the cost of certain adaptation actions and the rest would come from local or an international funding source. The management of NAF will be a joint responsibility of the Ministry of Finance and Ministry of Environment. For both national and sectoral actions of NAP, allocation of money from NAF will be made upon the recommendation of CCS.

International adaptation funding opportunities: There are several international organizations that offer funding for adaptation interventions. Some examples are Asian Development Bank (ADB), World Bank (WB), GEF (UNDP), other United Nations organizations such as UNHABITAT, UNESCAP and Green Climate Fund (GCF). Both national adaptation actions and sectoral adaptation actions can be funded through these initiatives. Proposed national adaptation actions can be formulated in to project proposals and submitted for donor funding by the NWG or CACs. The CCS might not be able to approach these funding organizations directly, but through the External Resources Department (ERD), which is again a representative of the NWG. The same procedure can be followed for any adaptation actions to be implemented thorough CACs.

Funds for specialized adaptation related research and development: The National Science Foundation (NSF) and the National Research Council (NRC) are the two main government institutions that facilitate small and large grants for scientific research in Sri Lanka. These two institutes fall under the Ministry of Science and Technology and will be member institutions of the NWG. These organizations may help developing dedicated funding facilities for thematic research on climate change adaptation.

Private sector funding opportunities: Another source of funding is the corporate sector. Private sector organizations usually allocate funds for Cooperate Social Responsibility (CSR). Climate change adaptation projects can be a recipient of such CSR funding. However, this is not a fully explored channel and therefore creation of awareness would matter most. Approaching these institutions can be facilitated by CCS.

Funding through Community Service Organizations: While the size of support expected from these sources may be low in terms of cash, there is plenty of human resources that can be used through this channel. These types of funding opportunities are ideal for adaptation measures that are targeting community level actions.

Tentative budget estimates are given in Tables A10-A19 with the time plan of actions. The figures given in the tables are gross estimates validated by the stakeholders in the workshops. However, these figures cannot be entirely relied upon and they only offer comparative first estimates that should provide the foundation for working out detailed budgets for respective actions.

11. References

Abhayasinghe, K.R. (2007), “Climate”, In The National Atlas of Sri Lanka. Survey Department of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka: 52-53.

Ahmed M. and S. Suphachalasai (2014), Assessing the Costs of Climate Change and Adaptation in South Asia. Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines.

Ahmed, S. A., N. S. Diffenbaugh and T. W Hertel (2009), “Climate Volatility Deepens Poverty Vulnerability in Developing Countries.” Environmental Research Letters (4).

Basnayake, B. R. S. B. (2008), “Climate Change: Present and Future Perspective of Sri Lanka.

Available at Meteorological Department of Sri Lanka.

Basnayake, B. R. S. B., T. K. Fernando and J.C. Vithanage (2002), “Variation of Air Temperature and Rainfall during Yala and Maha Agricultural Seasons.” Proceedings of the 58thAnnual Session of Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science (SLASS). Section E1. SLAAS, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Basnayake, B.R.S.B. (2007) Climate Change. In The National Atlas of Sri Lanka. Survey Department of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka: 54-55

Basnayake, B.R.S.B. (2007) Climate Change: Present and Future Perspective of Sri Lanka. In Climate Change in Sri Lanka: Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation. Proceedings of the national conference of climate change held in Kukuleganga, Sri Lanka on 16-17 March, 2007, Department of Meteorology, Colombo, Sri Lanka: 15-22

Basnayake, S. (2007) Future Climate Scenarios of Rainfall and Temperature for Sri Lanka. Paper presented at the 209th meeting of the E&E forum of the Tea Research Institute of Sri Lanka. Talawakele, Sri Lanka.

Chandrapala, L. (2007a) Temperature. In The National Atlas of Sri Lanka. Survey Department of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka: 56-57

Chandrapala, L. (2007b) Rainfall. In The National Atlas of Sri Lanka. Survey Department of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka: 58-59

Chandrapala, L. (1996a) Calculation of areal precipitation of Sri Lanka on district basis using Voronoi Tessalation Method. Proceedings of National Symposium on Climate Change, Central Environmental Authority, Colombo, Sri Lanka. March 7-8, 1996.

Chandrapala, L. (1996b) Long term trends of rainfall and temperature in Sri Lanka. In Climate Variability and Agriculture, Abrol, Y. P., S. Gadgil and G. B. Pant. (Eds.) New Delhi, India: Narosa Publishing House. Pp 153-162.

Cruz, R. V., H. Harasawa., M. Lal., S. Wu., Y. Anokhin., B. Punsalmaa., Y. Honda., M. Jafari., C. Li and N. Huu Ninh (2007) Asia. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Parry, M. L., O. F Canziani., J. P. Palutikof.,

P. J. Van der Linden and C. E. Hanson. (Eds.) Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp 469-506.

De Silva, C. S. (2006b) Impacts of climate change on water resources in Sri Lanka. Paper presented at the 32nd WEDC International Conference, November 13-17, 2006, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Eriyagama, N., V. Smakhtin., L. Chandrapala and K. Fernando (2010) Impacts of climate change on water resources and agriculture in Sri Lanka: a review and preliminary vulnerability mapping. Colombo, Sri Lanka: International Water Management Institute. 51p. (IWMI Research Report 135). [doi:10.5337/2010.211]

Fernando, T. K. (1997) Recent variations of rainfall and air temperature in Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the 53rd Annual Session of Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science (SLASS). Section E1. Pp. 318

Fernando, T. K and L. Chandrapala (1992) Global Warming and Rainfall Variability – Sri Lankan Situation. Proceedings of the 47 th Annual Session of Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science (SLASS) Section E1. Pp. 138.

Fernando, T. K and L. Chandrapala (1994) Study of thunder activity over some parts of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the 49th Annual Session of Sri Lanka Association for the Advancement of Science (SLASS).Section E1. Pp.191-192.

Hijioka, Y., E. Lin., J.J. Pereira., R.T. Corlett., X. Cui., G.E. Insarov., R.D. Lasco., E. Lindgren and A. Surjan (2014) Asia. In Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Part B: Regional Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, pp. 1327-1370.

Imbulana, K.A.U.S., N.T.S. Wijesekara., B.R. Neupane (2006) Sri Lanka Water Development Report 2010. UNESCO and Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Mangement, Colombo, Sri Lanka

Imbulana, K.A.U.S., N.T.S. Wijesekara., B.R. Neupane., M.M.M. Aheeyar and V.K. Nanayakkara (2010) Sri Lanka Water Development Report 2010. UNESCO and Ministry of Irrigation and Water Resources Mangement, Colombo, Sri Lanka

Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka (2014) Millennium Development Goals of Sri Lanka, United Nations Development Programme, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) (2000) Emission Scenarios. Nakicenovic, N and R. Swart (Eds.) A Special Report of IPCC Working Group III. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

IPCC (2001) Climate Change 2001: Impacts, Adaptation, and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. McCarthy, J., O. Canziani., N. Leary., D. Dokken., and K. White., (Eds). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

IPCC (2007) Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Core Writing Team. Pachauri, R.K and A. Reisinger (Eds.) Geneva, Switzerland: IPCC. 104 pp.

Jayatilake, H.M and K.T.N. Perera (2013) Piano-key Weir at Giritale Reservoir in Sri Lanka. A paper presented at the second international workshop on ‘Labyrinth and Piano-key Weirs’ in Paris, France on 20-22 November 2013, Paris, France.

Jayatilake, H.M., L. Chandrapala., B.R.S.B. Basnayake and G.H.P. Dharmaratne (2005) Water Resources and Climate Change. In (Eds.) S. Wijesekara, K.A.U.S. Imbulana and Bhanu Neupane. Proceedings of the preparatory workshop on Sri Lanka national water

development report. Ministry of Irrigation, Mahaweli and Rajarata Development, Colombo, Sri Lanka: 62-87

Jayawardena, H.K.W.I., D.U.J. Sonnadara and D.R. Jayawardena. (2005). Trends of Rainfall in Sri Lanka over the Last Century. Sri Lanka Journal of Physics. 6: 7-17

Kumar, K. R., A. K. Sahai., K. Krishna Kumar., S. K. Patwardhan., P. K. Mishra., J. V. Revadekar.,

K. Kamala and G. B. Pant (2006) High-resolution climate change scenarios for India for the 21st century. Current Science 90(3): 334-345.

Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy (2011) National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy for Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy (2012). The National Climate Change Policy of Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Ministry of Environment and Renewable Energy (2014) National Action Program (NAP) for Combating Land Degradation in Sri Lanka. Colombo, Sri Lanka

Mutuwatte, L.P and P.K.N.C. Liyanage (2013) Impacts of Climate Change on Agro-Ecological Regions of Sri Lanka. In H.P.M. Gunasena, H.A.J. Gunatilake, J.M.D.T. Everard , C.S. Ransinghe and A.D. Nainanayake (Eds.) Proceedings of the International Conference on Climate Change Impacts and Adaptations for Food and Environmental Security. Coconut Research Institute, Lunuwila, Sri Lanka.

National Council for Sustainable Development (2009) National Action Plan for Haritha Lanka Programme. The Presidential Secretariat, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Nissanka, S. P., B. V. R. Punyawardena., K. H. M. S Premalal and R.O. Thattil (2011) Recent trends in annual and growing seasons’ rainfall of Sri Lanka. Proceedings of the International Conference on the Impact of Climate Change in Agriculture. Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ruhuna, Mapalana, Sri Lanka. December 20, 2011. Pages 249- 263

Premalal, K. H. M. S. (2009) Weather and climate trends, climate controls & risks in Sri Lanka. Presentation made at the Sri Lanka Monsoon Forum, April 2009. Department of Meteorology, Sri Lanka.

Punyawardena, B.V.R. (2009) Climate of the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka. R.B. Mapa, S. Somasiri, A.R. Dassanayake (Eds.) Soils of the Dry Zone of Sri Lanka, Soil Science Society of Sri Lanka, Peradeniya, Sri Lanka: 12-28.

Punyawardena, B.V.R., S. Mehmood, A.K., Hettiarachchi, M, Iqbal, S.H.S.A Silva, and A. Goheer (2013) Future Climate of Sri Lanka: An approach through dynamic downscaling of ECHAM4 General Circulation Model (GCM). Tropical Agriculturist 161: 35-50

Punyawardena, B. V. R., T. Dissanaike and A. Mallawatantri (2013) Spatial variation climate change induced vulnerability in Sri Lanka.; An analysis of the components of ulnerability at district level. Published by the Department of Agriculture in collaboration with UNDP/SGP, Sri Lanka

Punyawardena, B. V. R., S. Mehmood., A. K. Hettiarachchi., M. Iqbal., S. H. S. A. Silva and A. Goheer (2013) Future climate of Sri Lanka: An approach through dynamic downscaling of ECHAM4 General Circulation Model (GCM). Tropical Agriculturist 161: 35-50.

Punyawardena, B. V. R. and K. H. M. S. Premalal (2013) Do trends in extreme positive rainfall anomalies in the Central highlands of Sri Lanka exist? Annals of the Sri Lanka Department of Agriculture, 15: 1-12

Ratnayake, U. and Herath, G. (2005) Changes in Water Cycle: Effect on Natural Disasters and Ecosystems. In S. Wijesekara, K.A.U.S. Imbulana, B. Neupane (Eds.), Proceedings of the Preparatory Workshop on Sri Lanka National Water Development Report, World Water Assessment Programme, Paris, France: 192-205.

Samarasinghe, G.B. (2009) Long Ranged Forecast of Climate Change for Sri Lanka. Paper presented at the National Workshop on ‘Mainstreaming Climate Change for Sustainable Development in Sri Lanka’ in Dambulla from 19th – 21st August, 2009 organized by the Institute of Policy Studies in collaboration with the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources.

Senaratne, A., N. Perera and K. Wickramasinghe (2009) Mainstreaming Climate Change for Sustainable Development in Sri Lanka: Towards a National Agenda for Action. Research Studies: Working Paper Series No. 14. Institute of Policy Studies of Sri Lanka, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Shantha, W. W. A and J. M. S. B. Jayasundara (2005) Study on changes of rainfall in the Mahaweli upper watershed in Sri Lanka due to climatic changes and develop a correction model for global warming. Paper presented at the International Symposium on the Stabilisation of Greenhouse Gas Concentrations. Hadley Centre, Met Office, Exeter, UK.

Zubair, L., J. Hansen., J. Chandimala., M. R. A. Siraj., M. Siriwardhana., K. Ariyaratne., I. Bandara., H. Bulathsinghala., T. Abeyratne., T. D. M. A. Samuel (2005) Current climate and climate change assessments for coconut and tea plantations in Sri Lanka. IRI, FECT, NRMS and UoP Contribution to AS12 Project Report to be submitted to START, Washington, DC., USA.

12. Appendices

Table A-1: Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Food security

Physical effects	Physical hazards/vulnerabilities		Impacts		Socio-economic outcomes	Adaptation need		Adaptation options
Increased day and Increased thermal/heat stress on crops Increased thermal/heat stress on animals Increase water stress on crops Regular shortages of water Decrease in water availability in reservoirs Reduction of soil moisture Increased soil salinity Decreased soil quality ·			Decline of crop	·	Loss income to	1.	Enhance the	A.	Germ plasm
night air			productivity		farmers		resilience of		improvements
temperature		·	Decline of animal	·	Loss of income		crops, animals,	B.	Improvement of
Increased			productivity		to livestock		fish and agro-		farm water
evaporation and		·	Decline of fish		producers		ecosystems		management
evapo-transpiration			productivity in	·	Loss of income		against heat	C.	Promotion of
Regular and			reservoir fisheries		to inland		and water		resource efficient
extended dry spells		·	Regular Crop losses		fishermen		stress		farming systems
Increased				·	Loss of livelihood			D.	Sectoral Capacity
frequency and					opportunities				development
severity of
droughts
Alteration of Increased risk of pest and disease attacks on crops Increased risk of parasite and disease attacks on livestock ·			Increased crop	·	Increased cost of	2.	Minimize the	A.	Germ plasm
thermal ranges for			damage due to pest		plant protection		risk of crop and		improvements
biological			and diseases	·	Increased cost of		health damage	B.	Strengthening of
organisms (pests,		·	Increased health risks		animal health		due to		supporting
pathogens,			of farm animals		management		biological		facilities
parasites, vectors)							agents	C.	Promotion of best
									practices

Irregular/erratic changes in established rainfall patterns Impacts on flowering of crops Changing pasture availability for livestock ·	· ·	Decline of crop productivity Crop losses Fluctuation in animal production	· ·	Loss income to farmers Loss of income to livestock producers	3.	Minimize the impact on food security due to erratic changes in precipitation	A. B.	Climate information management Improvement of pasture and fodder management
Regular incidents of Increased drainage and water logging problems Increased soil erosion Increased susceptibility of crops and livestock to floods hazards Increased susceptibility of crops and livestock to droughts Landslides Turbulent conditions in the sea ·		Decline of crop	·	Life and property	4.	Enhance the	A.	Germ plasm
intense rainfall		productivity		damages		resilience of		improvements
with high cloud	·	Crop losses	·	Loss income to		crops, animals,	B.	Establishment of
cover	·	Decline of animal		farmers		fish and agro-		an efficient climate
Increased		productivity	·	Loss of income		ecosystems to		information
frequency and	·	Decline of fish		to livestock		extreme		management and
severity of floods		productivity in		producers		weather events		communication
Increased		reservoir fisheries	·	Disturbance to				system
frequency and severity of droughts Cyclones and high · ·		Loss of livestock assets Depletion of fish stock in reservoirs	·	livelihood of fishermen Loss income to fishermen			C.	Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management
winds
Salt water Increased soil salinity in coastal areas Increased water salinity in coastal areas Increased coastal erosion Damage to coastal habitats ·		Decline in agricultural	·	Loss income to	5.	Minimize the	A.	Germ plasm
intrusion		productivity		farmers		impacts of sea		improvements
Inundation of low- lying areas	· ·	Salinity development in agricultural lands Damage to livelihoods based on coastal habitats	· ·	Loss of agricultural lands impacts on livelihoods of coastal and		level rise on agriculture in coastal zone	B. C.	Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts Exploring alternatives
				lagoon
				fishermen

Ocean acidification Physiochemical changes in oceanic environment · ·	Damage to coral reefs Structural changes oceanic habitats and composition of species	· ·	Changes in reef fish stocks Stock changes in economically important species	·	Impacts on livelihoods to fishermen	6.	Assess the changes in oceanic environment and impacts on livelihoods and food security	C. D.	Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts
Rising atmospheric ·	Increased	·	Increased productivity	·	Income gains for	7.	Assess the	A.	Initiating research
CO2 concentration	photosynthesis in		in certain crops		farmers		impacts of		studies to assess
	certain plant	·	Increased weed	·	Increased cost of		rising		climate impacts
	categories		populations		plant protection		atmospheric
							CO2 on
							productivity
							crops and
							weed
							populations

Table A-2: Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Water resources

Physical effects		Physical hazards/vulnerabilities		Impacts		Socio-economic outcomes	Adaptation need		Adaptation options
Increased day and ·		Regular fluctuation of	·	Decreased availability	·	Supply	1.	Enhance the	A.	Improvement of
night air		water availability in		of safe water for		constraints of		resilience of		watershed
temperature		major/medium		human consumption		safe water for		systems for		management
Increased		reservoirs	·	Decreased availability		domestic use		water supply,	B.	Capacity
evaporation and	·	Rapid dry out of minor		of water for irrigation	·	Loss of income		management		development of
evapo-transpiration		irrigation facilities	·	Decreased availability		for farmers		and use to		storage facilities
Regular and ·		Poor and disturbed		of water for industrial	·	Loss of livelihood		overcome the	C.	Initiating research
extended dry spells		flow in streams		supply		opportunities		scarcities		studies to assess
Increased ·		Decreased quality of	·	Decreased water	·	Increased cost of		caused by		climate impacts
frequency and		water due to high		quality and safety		industrial water		climate change	D.	Strengthening the
severity of		salinity				supply		impacts		monitoring of
droughts	·	Depletion of ground								climate impacts
Irregular/erratic		water sources							E.	Promote efficient
changes in										practices of water
established rainfall										management and
patterns										use

Regular incidents of Problems of drainage and water logging conditions. Rapid siltation of reservoirs Damage to irrigation structures Damage to domestic and industrial water supply structures Decrease in quality of water due to	- sediment wash off - Pollution of drinking water	·	Wastage (unutilized)	·	Problems of	2.	Ensure the	A.	Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts Establishment of an efficient climate information and communication system Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management Capacity development of storage facilities
intense rainfall			of water in periods of		water quality		safety of water
Increased			excess rainfall		and safety for		management
frequency and		·	Disturbances domestic		human		facilities and	B.
severity of floods			water supply		consumption		minimize
Increased ·			Disturbances to	·	Increased cost of		disturbances to
frequency cyclones			irrigation		rehabilitation		supply due to
and high winds		·	Disturbance to		and		extreme
			industrial water supply		maintenance		weather events	C.
		·	Loss of storage	·	Increased cost of
			capacity of reservoirs		drainage
				·	Life and property
					damages			D.
Salt water Decline of water quality due to increased salinity Damage to irrigation structures Damage to domestic and industrial water supply facilities ·			Decreased availability	·	Supply	3.	Minimize the	A.	Strengthening the
intrusion			of fresh water for		constraints of		impacts of sea		monitoring of
Inundation of low-			human consumption		safe water for		level rise on		climate impacts
lying areas		·	Decreased availability		domestic use		water supply	B.	Improve salinity
			of water for irrigation	·	Loss of income		and		protection
			due to high salinity		for farmers		management		measures in
		·	Decreased quality of	·	Increased cost of		in coastal zone		coastal areas
			water for industrial		industrial water
			supply		supply

Table A-3: Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Coastal and marine sector

Physical effects	Physical hazards/vulnerabilities		Impacts		Socio-economic outcomes	Adaptation need		Adaptation options
Inundation of low- Shoreline retreat Increased coastal erosion Damage to coastal habitats (estuaries& lagoons, mangroves, salt marshes, beaches, sand dunes, coral reefs, sea grass beds, deltas, islands, barrier beaches and spits) Effects on estuaries and river mouths ·			Damages to coastal	·	Impacts on	1.	Strengthen the	A.	Initiating research
lying areas (sea			protection structures		livelihoods of		coastal zone		studies to assess
level rise)		·	Decline in beach		local		management		impacts of sea
			stability		communities		to face the		level rise
		·	Loss of eco-system	·	Increased cost of		impacts of sea	B.	Establishment of a
			services		coastal		level rise		sea level rise
		·	Loss of lands		protection				monitoring system
				·	Increased			C.	Strengthening the
					scarcity of lands				coastal protection
									and management
								D.	Participatory
									management of
									sensitive coastal
									habitats
Irregular/erratic Increased incidence of storm surges, tidal waves and turbulent conditions. Damage to coastal habitats (estuaries& lagoons, mangroves, salt marshes, beaches, sand dunes, coral reefs, sea grass beds, deltas, islands, barrier beaches and spits) ·			Damages to coastal	·	Loss of	2.	Enhance the	A.	Improvement of
changes in			protection structures		livelihoods/inco		resilience of		disaster risk
established rainfall		·	Decline in beach		me to extractors		coastal		preparedness and
patterns			stability		of coastal		systems		management
Regular incidents of ·			Loss of eco-system		resources		against
intense rainfall			services	·	Increased cost of		increased
Increased incidence					coastal		extreme
of cyclones and					protection		events
high winds

Table A-4: Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Health

Physical effects		Physical hazards/vulnerabilities		Impacts		Socio-economic outcomes	Adaptation need		Adaptation options
Irregular/erratic ·		Increased risk of	·	Increased mortality	·	Increased cost of	1.	Assess and	A.	Conducting
changes in		spreading of existing		due to vector borne		prevention and		prepare for the		research studies to
precipitation		vector borne-diseases		and pathogenic		treatment		health risks		assess the risk of
pattern		(e.g. Dengue, malaria)		diseases	·	Loss of value and		due to		climate-induced
Alteration of ·		Increased risk	·	Increased morbidity		income due to		increased		diseases
thermal ranges for		spreading of		due to vector borne		reduced number		vector bone	B.	Strengthening the
biological		pathogenic diseases		and pathogenic		of workdays		and pathogenic		surveillance and
organisms (pests,	·	Risk of new areas		diseases	·	Psychological		diseases		monitoring of
pathogens,		becoming susceptible	·	Reduced capacity of		trauma and				climate- induced
parasites, vectors)		to vector bone and		victims for productive		stress due to				diseases
Boundary shift in		pathogenic diseases		work		victimization			C.	Capacity
climatic zones	·	Increased risk of new								development for
		vector bone disease								managing climate-
		outbreaks (e.g.								induced disease
		leishmaniasis)								incidents
Increased ·		Increased risk of	·	Increased susceptibility	·	Increased cost of	2.	Minimize the	A.	Establishing an
frequency and		outbreaks of food and		to health hazards		health care		health hazards		efficient climate
severity of floods Cyclones and high winds Lightening	·	water borne diseases Increased number of injuries and mortalities due to victimization to hazard events		among disaster victims	·	management and treatment of victims Psychological trauma and		associated with increased incidence of extreme events	B.	information and communication system Improvement of disaster risk
Landslides ·		Health and sanitation				stress due to				preparedness of
		problems due to poor				victimization				health related
		access to water								agencies and
										workers

Increased Increased risk of diseases and ill-health conditions ( e.g. respiratory, cardio- vascular, skin diseases, neurological, carcinogenic ) ·		Increased mortality	·	Increased cost of	3.	Assess and	A.	Conducting
concentration of		due to diseases and ill-		prevention and		prepare for		research studies to
climate altering		health conditions		treatment		health risks		assess health
pollutants	·	Increased morbidity	·	Loss of value and		caused by		impacts of climate
		due to diseases and ill-		income due to		concentration		altering pollutants
		health conditions		reduced number		of climate	B.	Improvement of
	·	Reduced capacity of		of workdays		altering		monitoring of
		victims for productive	·	Psychological		pollutants		climate altering
		work		trauma and				pollutants
				stress due to			C.	Capacity
				victimization				development for
								managing health
								impacts of climate
								altering pollutants
Increased day and Increased risk of ill- health conditions due to heat stress Probability for decline in cold related diseases, (e.g. influenza, common cold) Increased risk of respiratory and eye diseases ·		high rate of morbidity	·	Increased cost of	4.	Assess the	A.	Conducting
night air	·	Reduced capacity of		prevention and		impact on		research studies to
temperature		victims for productive		treatment		health due to		assess health
Increased		work	·	Loss of value and		increased heat		impacts of
concentration of				income due to		and thermal		heat/thermal
dust/ soil particles				reduced number		stress		stresses and to
in atmosphere				of workdays				protect the victims
Heat island effect			·	Psychological
				trauma and
				stress due to
				victimization

Table A-5: Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Human settlements and infrastructure

Physical effects		Physical hazards/vulnerabilities	Impacts	Socio-economic outcomes	Adaptation need		Adaptation options
Increased day and ·		Increased thermal	Decrease in living comfort Increased dependence on indoor living environments Reduction in walkability and cyclability Increased demand for energy and water supply Increased cost on indoor environment controlling facilities Increased maintenance costs of infrastructure Increased cost of sanitation and healthcare of domestic animals Increased cost on energy and water supply Increased cost of protection from pollution		1.	Enhance the	A.	Improvement and
night air		stress on residents				resilience of		promotion of
temperature	·	Accelerated				human		building designs
Increased		deterioration of				settlements		and the
evaporation and		infrastructure				and		environment
evapo-transpiration		facilities: e.g thermal				infrastructure		(landscaping etc.)
Regular and		cracks				against heat		for climate
extended dry spells	·	Increased thermal				and water		resilience
Increased		stress on domestic				stress	B.	Revision of
frequency and		animals						procedures and
severity of	·	Increased exposure to						guidelines
droughts		pollutants					C.	Initiating research
Increased concentration of dust/ soil particles in atmosphere ·		Increased exposure to air pollution due to poor wind movements					D.	studies to assess climate impacts Sectoral Capacity development
Heat island effect
Irregular/erratic ·		Impacts on drainage	Decrease in living comfort Increased dependence on indoor living environments Reduction in walkability and cyclability Periodic overcrowding of the capacity of Infrastructure facilities. E.g. Drainage system	Increased maintenance costs of infrastructure facilities Disturbance to livelihoods of rural, estate and urban poor	2.	Minimize the	A.	Enhance the
changes in		and sewerage systems				impacts on		capacity of
established rainfall	·	Accelerated				human		infrastructure in
patterns		deterioration of				settlements		urban settlements
Regular incidents of		infrastructure facilities				and	B.	Promote water
intense rainfall						infrastructure		safety and
with high cloud						due to erratic		efficient utilization
cover						changes in		of surplus water
						precipitation

Increased Damage to housing and settlements Damage to infrastructure facilities Decline of water quality Damages to critical social facilities: health, security, education, communication ·		Increased incidences of	·	Life damages	3.	Enhance the	A.	Promotion of
frequency and		diseases and injury	·	Displacement of		resilience of		disaster resilient
severity of floods	·	Increased demand for		people		human		buildings and
Increased		health and sanitation	·	Damage to		settlements		construction
frequency and		facilities		property and		and	B.	Improvement of
severity of	·	Problems of		livelihood assets		infrastructure		disaster risk
droughts		supply/distribution of	·	Loss of		to extreme		preparedness and
Cyclones and high		water		livelihoods and		weather events		management
winds				income
Land slides			·	Increased
				rehabilitation
				and
				maintenance
				cost
Salt water Damage to housing and settlements Damage to near-shore infrastructure Impacts on sea outfalls Increased salinity of water sources Accelerated deterioration of structures – concrete, steel materials ·		Impacts on settlements	·	Damage to	4.	Minimize the	A.	Increase the
intrusion		– fishers, tourism		property and		impacts of sea		resilience of
Inundation of low- ·		Problems of water		livelihood assets		level rise on		coastal
lying areas		supply – both pipe	·	Loss of lands		coastal		settlements
		borne and well water	·	Displacement of		settlements	B.	Strengthening the
				people and		and		monitoring of sea
				unplanned		infrastructure		level rise
				settlements
			·	Increased
				maintenance
				costs of
				structures

Table A-6: Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Ecosystems and biodiversity

Physical effects	Physical hazards/vulnerabilities		Impacts		Socio-economic outcomes		Adaptation need	Adaptation options
Increased day and Increased thermal/heat stress on flora Increased thermal/heat stress on fauna Changes in structure and composition of natural ecosystems Changes in spatial distribution of natural vegetation Drying out of wetlands due to increased evaporation Eutrophication of water bodies and wetlands Coral bleaching Migration of species Forest die-back Migration of species due to water stress Drying out of streams ·			Decline of ecosystem	·	Impacts on	1.	Enhance	Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts Extend the existing biodiversity protection interventions to cover climate change impacts Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts Enhance the participation of local communities in monitoring, conservation and management of biodiversity Promotion of traditional methods of biodiversity conservation for increased resilience in agro-ecosystems Sectoral Capacity development
night air			services		livelihoods of		the
temperature		·	Increased risk of wild		local		resilience
Increased			fires		communities		of natural
evaporation and		·	Loss of aesthetic value	·	Problems of		ecosystems
evapo-transpiration		·	Risk of extinction of		water scarcity		and
Alteration of			species		for local		biodiversity
thermal ranges for biological organisms Regular and ·		·	Decreased availability of water to surrounding areas Increased risk of	·	communities Increase cost of managing wild fires		against climate change impacts
extended dry spells			human wildlife	·	Life and property
Increased			conflicts		damages
frequency and				·	Crop and
severity of					livestock losses
droughts
Irregular/erratic
changes in
established rainfall
patterns
Boundary shift in
climatic zones

Regular incidents of ·		Physical damages to	·	Decline of ecosystem	·	Impacts on	2.	Enhance	G.	Improvement of
intense rainfall		natural ecosystems		services		livelihoods of		the		disaster risk
with high cloud	·	Increased mortality	·	Negative externalities		local		resilience		preparedness and
cover		and stress on fauna		on local communities		communities		of natural		management
Increased ·		Migration of species						ecosystems
frequency and								against
severity of floods								extreme
Increased								weather
frequency and								events
severity of
droughts
Cyclones and high
winds
Salt water ·		Increased salinity	·	Changes in coastal	·	impacts on	3.	Minimize	A.	Initiating research
intrusion		levels in coastal		biodiversity		livelihoods of		the impacts		studies to assess
Inundation of low-		ecosystems	·	Loss of eco-system		coastal resource		of sea level		climate impacts
lying areas	·	Structural changes in		services		extractors		rise on	B.	Strengthening the
		coastal habitats and						coastal bio-		monitoring of climate
		composition of species						diversity		impacts
								and
								ecosystem
								services
Physiochemical ·		Structural changes	·	Changes in oceanic	·	Impacts on	4.	Assess the	A.	Initiating research
changes in oceanic		oceanic habitats and		biodiversity and food		livelihoods to		impact of		studies to assess
environment		composition of species		chains		fishermen		thermal		climate impacts
								changes in	B.	Strengthening the
								oceanic		monitoring of climate
								bio-		impacts
								diversity
								and food
								chains

Table A-7: Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Tourism and recreation

Physical effects	Physical hazards/vulnerabilities		Impacts		Socio-economic outcomes	Adaptation need		Adaptation options
Increased day and night air temperature Regular and extended dry spells Increased frequency and severity of droughts Inundation of low- lying coastal areas Ocean acidification Progressive increase in acidity of rainfall Degradation of natural ecosystems and biodiversity Drying out of wetlands Eutrophication of water bodies and wetlands Forest die-back Drying out of streams Destruction of coastal ecosystems Loss of beaches and recreational areas Destruction of coral reefs Damages to monuments and archeological assets ·		· · ·	Decline of scenic attractions and aesthetic value Decline of cultural assets Loss of recreation opportunities Damages to tourism infrastructure	· · · ·	Decline of attractiveness as a tourism destination Losses in tourism operations Livelihoods impacts on local communities involved in tourism Reduced earnings from tourism	1.	Adjustment of tourism and recreation industry to altered conditions of the destination	A. B. C.	Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts Operational adjustments in the industry Changing of promotional strategies
Irregular/erratic Creation of unsuitable ·			Restrictions on aviation	·	Disturbances to	2.	Increase the	A.	Improvement of
changes in	conditions for	·	Restrictions on local		tourism		preparedness		disaster risk
established rainfall	travelling		travelling		operations		of tourism and		preparedness and
patterns	Creation of unsuitable ·		Restrictions on	·	Impacts on		recreation		management
Increased	conditions for		undertaking		livelihoods of		operations to	B.	Establishment of
frequency and	recreation		recreational activities		local		extreme		an efficient climate
severity of floods	Increased incidents of ·		Increased of		communities		weather		information
Cyclones and high	disaster situations		emergencies in				conditions		management and
winds			travelling						communication
Land slides									system

Table A-8: Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Export development sector

Physical effects		Physical hazards/vulnerabilities		Impacts		Socio-economic outcomes	Adaptation need		Adaptation options
Increased day and ·		Increased	·	Decline of crop	·	Loss of income	1.	Enhance the	Germ plasm improvements Improvement of farm and nursery management practices Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts Sectoral Capacity development
night air		thermal/heat stress on		productivity (tea,		for plantation		resilience of
temperature		crops		rubber, coconut,		workers and		export
Increased ·		Increase water stress		spices, sugar and		small scale		agricultural
evaporation and		on crops		cashew)		producers		crops against
evapo-transpiration	·	Regular shortages of	·	Decline of the quality	·	Decrease in		the impacts of
Regular and		water for extended		of products		export earnings		heat and water
extended dry spells		periods	·	High mortality and low	·	Increased cost of		stress
Increased ·		Reduction of soil		survival in nursery and		production
frequency and		moisture		replanting operations	·	Potential
severity of	·	Increased soil salinity	·	Potential increases in		Increase in
droughts	·	Decreased soil quality		productivity of up		earnings of up
				country tea (WU)		country tea (WU)
Alteration of ·		Increased risk of pest	·	Increased crop	·	Increased cost of	2.	Minimize the	Germ plasm improvements Improvement of farm and nursery management practices Monitoring and surveillance of pest and disease
thermal ranges for		and disease attacks on		damage due to pest		plant protection		risk of crop
biological		crops		and diseases				damage due to
organisms (pests,								biological
pathogens, weeds)								agents

Irregular/erratic Low solar radiation Drainage problems High soil erosion High number days with intense rainfall: increased vulnerability to rainfall shocks High humidity and moisture Disturbance to cultural operations Problems of pollination Increased vulnerability of new plantations in non-traditional areas Decline of crop productivity (tea, rubber, coconut, spices, sugar and cashew) Decline of the quality of products High mortality and low survival in nursery and replanting operations Increased risk of diseases Loss of number of harvesting days ·		Loss of income	3.	Minimize the	A.	Establishment of
changes in		for plantation		impact on		an efficient climate
established rainfall		workers and		export		information
patterns		small scale		earnings from		management and
Regular incidents of		producers		agriculture		communication
intense rainfall	·	Decrease in		due to erratic		system
with high cloud		export earnings		changes in	B.	Improvements in
cover	·	Increased cost of		precipitation		cropping systems
		production		patterns
Increased Increased drainage and water logging problems Increased soil erosion Increased susceptibility of crops to flood hazards Increased susceptibility of crops to droughts Landslides Physical damage to plantations and trees Crop losses due to floods Crop losses due to drought Chronic declining of the vigor of plants Fire damage on crops Decline in Quality of products High mortality and low survival in nursery and replanting operations Loss of agricultural lands hilly areas ·		Damage to	4.	Enhance the	A.	Establishment of
frequency and		plantations		resilience of		an efficient climate
severity of floods		Properties		export		information
Increased ·		Loss of income		agricultural		management and
frequency and		for plantation		crops to		communication
severity of		workers and		extreme		system
droughts		small scale		weather events	B.	Improvement of
Cyclones and high		producers				disaster risk
winds	·	Decrease in				preparedness and
		export earnings				management
	·	Increased cost of
		production

Table A-9: Physical effects, impacts, adaptation needs and adaptation options – Industry, energy and transportation

Physical effects		Physical hazards/vulnerabilities		Impacts		Socio-economic outcomes		Adaptation need	Adaptation options
Increased day and ·		Regular fluctuation of	·	Fluctuation in hydro	·	Reduction in low cost hydro power generation Decline in agro- based industrial production Increased cost on environment controlling facilities	1.	Minimize the	A.	Improvement of
night air		water availability in		power generation				impacts of rising		watershed
temperature		hydro power		potential				temperature and		management
Increased		reservoirs	·	Supply irregularities in				periodic scarcity	B.	Capacity
evaporation and	·	Increased		agro-based raw	·			of water on		development of
evapo-transpiration		thermal/heat and		materials				energy, industry		storage facilities
Regular and		water stress on crops						and	C.	Initiating
extended dry spells		and animals			·			transportation		research studies
Increased ·		Increased								to assess climate
frequency and		thermal/heat stress in								impacts
severity of		industrial facilities							D.	Strengthening
droughts										the monitoring of
Irregular/erratic changes in established rainfall patterns									E.	climate impacts Promote efficient practices of water management
										and use

Regular incidents of Rapid siltation of hydro power reservoirs Unfavorable conditions for transportation Damage to transport infrastructure Damage to energy and industrial facilities Rapid decrease in the capacity of hydropower reservoirs Disturbances to road, sea and air transportation Increased congestion and travel time in transportation Increased risk of accidents Damages to energy and industrial facilities ·			Decline in hydro	2.	Minimize the	A.	Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts Establishment of an efficient climate information and communication system Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management Capacity development of storage facilities
intense rainfall			power		impacts of
Increased			generation		extreme weather
frequency and			capacity		events on	B.
severity of floods		·	Increased cost of		energy, industry
Increased			transportation		and
frequency cyclones		·	Increased		transportation
and high winds			maintenance
			and
			rehabilitation			C.
			cost of
			transportation
			infrastructure
						D.
Inundation of low- Vulnerability of industries based on coastal areas: e.g. salt, coir and coconut- based industries, mineral sands, boat building industries Risk of damage on coastal infrastructure:	e.g. roads, railways, transmission lines Long-term risk of submergence of infrastructure and production facilities: energy, transportation and industry Decline of coastal industries Damage to transport infrastructure in coastal areas Damage to energy infrastructure: transmission Loss of infrastructure, production and generation facilities ·		Loss of income	3.	Minimize the	A.	Strengthening
lying areas			from coastal		impacts of sea		the monitoring of
			industries		level rise on		climate impacts
		·	Increased cost of		energy,	B.	Improve salinity
			rehabilitation		transportation		protection
			and		and industrial		measures in
			maintenance		facilities		coastal areas
		·	Cost of new
			infrastructure
		·	Cost of
			relocation of
			industries

Table A-10: Time plan and budget – Food Security

Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Action	Time (years)										Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Action	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Enhance the resilience of crops, animals, fish and agro-ecosystems against heat and water stress	Germ plasm improvements	Screen existing varieties/breeds for heat and water stress.											20
		Develop tolerant varieties (paddy, OFC, horticulture)											20
		Develop heat tolerant breeds (livestock)											20
	Improvement of farm water management	Reduce field-level irrigation water losses											15
		Promote micro-irrigation techniques											15
		Develop water efficient farming methods											15
		Promote on-farm rainwater harvesting											15
	Promotion of resource efficient farming systems	Improve cropping systems and conservation farming practices											8
		Improve nursery protection											8
		Introduce flower induce techniques in fruits											10
		Increase the use organic matter to improve soil quality(Integrated plan nutrient management)											8
		Promote low-water demanding crops and varieties and crop diversifications											8
		Promote the intensive management of livestock											8
	Sectoral Capacity development	Develop research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on tolerant varieties and water efficient farming methods.											100
Minimize the risk of crop and health damage due to biological agents	Germ plasm improvements	Screen existing varieties/breeds for pest and disease resistance.											20
		Develop pest resistant varieties (paddy, OFC, horticulture)											20
		Develop disease resistant breeds (livestock and poultry)											20

	Strengthening of supporting facilities	Strengthen vaccination programmes	15
		Develop pest forecasting system	20
		Conduct research on parasites and diseases	20
		Promote crop clinics	10
	Promotion of best practices	Promote integrated pest management	10
Minimize the impact on food security due to erratic changes in precipitation	Establishment of an efficient climate information management and communication system	Develop a system for timely issuing of seasonal and medium -term weather forecasts	30
		Adjust cropping calendars according to the seasonal climate forecasts	5
	Improvement of pasture and fodder management	Diversify into livestock feeds other than naturally grown pasture	5
		Promote silage and hey production	5
		Promote techniques of fodder production and conservation	5
Enhance the resilience of crops, animals, fish and agro-ecosystems to extreme weather events	Germ plasm improvements	Screen existing varieties for tolerance to extreme events	20
		Develop tolerant varieties (paddy) – drought, flood	20
		Develop tolerant verities (OFC and horticulture) for moisture stress (deficit and excess)	10
	Establishment of an efficient climate information management and communication system	Develop a system for timely issuing of short-term weather forecasts	30
		Strengthen the early warning systems	20
		Strengthen fishing Vessel monitoring and tracking system	100
		Develop mobile phone based communication systems	30
		Develop safety plans and promote use of safety equipment	15
	Improvement of disaster risk	Identify and collect information on areas most vulnerable to flood and drought hazards	20

preparedness and management

Identify food storage capacities in vulnerable areas

Develop buffer stocks and maintain them regularly

Minimize the impacts of sea level rise on agriculture in coastal zone

Germ plasm improvements

Screen existing varieties for tolerance to salinity

Develop salinity/alkalinity tolerant varieties (paddy)

Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts

Monitor regularly the development of salinity/ alkalinity levels

Strengthen the sea water depends structures to control sea water intrusions to coastal paddy lands

Exploring alternatives

Convert severely affected paddy lands for other uses (e.g. brackish water aquaculture)

Assess the changes in oceanic environment and impacts on livelihoods and food security

Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts

Assess long-term structural changes oceanic habitats an composition of species

Assess climate change impacts on lagoon and coastal fisheries

Assess climate change impacts on reef fish stock

Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts

Initiate long term monitoring of essential bio-physical parameters (National monitoring programme)

Assess the impacts of rising atmospheric CO2 on productivity crops and weed populations

Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts

Conduct research studies on impact of increased CO2 on agriculture

Productivity of crops Weed populations

Table A-11: Time plan and budget – Water resources

Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Action	Time (years)										Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Action	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Enhance the resilience of systems for water resources, management and use to overcome the scarcities caused by climate change impacts	Improvement of watershed management	Identify and map critical watersheds											20
		Develop and implement watershed management plans for critical upper watersheds											100
		Incorporate water safety plans to all watershed areas											20
		Increase the canopy cover in catchment areas											30
		Promote conservation farming methods in reservoir catchments											10
		Launch participatory cascade management programmes in selected village tank catchments											20
		Incorporate effect of climate change for the future water resources development plans											20
	Capacity development of water storage facilities	Assess the current facilities and storage options in connection to future projections of climate change											50
		Evaluate future options for enhancement of storage facilitates including ground water											50
		Develop a road map and investment plan for efficient utilization of existing and future storage options											5
		Assess, regularize and preserve ground water resources at local level and utilize effectively											15
	Initiating research studies to assess climate change impacts	Assess, short-, medium- and long-term impacts of climate change on water resources and management systems in the country											10
		Screen current practices of water management for climate resilience and identify ways to improve them											5
		Explore climate resilient indigenous practices of water sector operation management and identify ways to integrate them into modern practices											10

	Strengthening the monitoring of climate change impacts	Initiate a long term monitoring program on essential bio-physical parameters (National monitoring programme)	30
	Promote efficient practices of water management and use	Promote efficient domestic water use practices	20
		Increase the efficiency of irrigation water use and reduce losses	40
		Improve maintenance of existing reservoirs	20
		Promote wastewater recycling for industrial and aqua culture water uses	20
Ensure the safety of water management facilities and minimize disturbances to supply due to extreme weather events	Strengthening the monitoring of climate change impacts	Assess the capacity of existing hydro-meteorological information facilities	5
	Strengthening the monitoring of climate change impacts	Implement necessary improvements to and strengthen accordingly	20
	Establishment of an efficient climate information and communication system	Develop a system for timely issuing of short-term weather forecasts	30
		Strengthen the early warning systems	30
		Assess the traditional knowledge of weather forecasting and integrate them for better forecasts of water availability.	10
		Develop network based (mobile phone or GSM ) communication systems	50
		Improve the existing system for timely issuing short term weather forecast and long term (climate) forecast	25
	Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management	Identify,map and collect other information on areas most vulnerable to flood , droughts and landslides hazards	50
		Develop disaster (flood, drought, landslides) risk management plans for vulnerable areas	10
		Establish necessary facilities for improvement of drainage in susceptible areas	20
		Develop dam safety plans and promote use of safety measures and equipment	10

Capacity development of storage facilities

Design rational strategies to harness excess water in storage facilities (interbrain, intra-basins and trans- basin approaches).

Minimize the impacts of sea level rise on water resources and management of coastal areas and wet lands

Strengthening the monitoring of sea level rise

Monitor the development of salinity levels regularly

Improve salt water intrusion protection measures in coastal areas and wetland

Identify vulnerable areas for saltwater intrusion and develop maps

Strengthen the salinity exclusion structures to control sea water intrusions

Design and construct salinity barriers to protect fresh water resources and agriculture lands

Establish desalinization facilities in affected/vulnerable areas

Table A-12: Time plan and budget – Coastal and marine sector

Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	Time (years)										Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Strengthen the coastal zone management to face the impacts of sea level rise	Initiating research studies to assess impacts of sea level rise	Study impacts of sea level rise on coastal habitats over short-medium- and long-term horizons											50
		Study erosion trends and identify appropriate protection measures											20
		Conduct research studies on coastal water quality and hydro dynamics in relation to climate change impacts											50
		Establish regional collaborations on research and monitoring											8
	Establishment of a sea level rise monitoring system	Identify critical shore line parameters for regular monitoring											8
		Implement continuous monitoring of shore line changes											100
		Prepare maps on low-lying areas vulnerable to inundation											20
		Prepare a data base on existing coastal habitats											15
		Promote participation of coastal communities in monitoring sea level rise											10
		Establishment of the mean sea level											50
	Strengthening the coastal protection and management	Develop shoreline management plan including M & E programme											10
		Update CZMP to ensure greater concern over climate change impacts											50
		Prepare SMA (Special Management Area) plans for critical & vulnerable areas											20
		Revise set back limits considering sea level rise											10

Undertake physical protection measures in critical areas

2000

Participatory management of sensitive coastal habitats

Conduct awareness programs on sea level rise and to empower coastal communities to face climate change impacts

Prepare and implement participatory management plans for the conservation and rehabilitation of sensitive coastal habitats with the collaboration of local communities and CSOs

200

Enhance the resilience of coastal ecosystems against increased extreme events

Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management

Identify, collect information and prepare maps on coastal areas vulnerable to extreme events

Prepare emergency response/contingency plans and guidelines for vulnerable areas

Establish physical protection measures in critical areas

declaration of affected areas

Table A-13: Time plan and budget – Health

Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	Time (years)										Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Assess and prepare for the increased health risks due to climate- induced vector bone and pathogenic diseases	Conducting research studies to assess the risk of climate-induced diseases	Conduct research studies on impact of climate change on prevalence and spread of diseases											30
		Assess critical factors for controlling climate-induced disease incidents											10
		Identify plausible strategies for management of climate-induced disease incidents											10
	Strengthening the surveillance and monitoring of climate- induced diseases	Establish a surveillance program for detection and monitoring of climate-induced diseases											15
		Prepare vulnerability maps on climate related health hazards											8
		Establish a mechanism for sharing meteorological , clinical and entomological information											10
	Capacity development for managing climate- induced disease incidents	Strengthen the alertness of health system against climate-induced disease incidents											20
		Launch an awareness programme on climate and health risks for Health care workers and public											5
		Develop/review guidelines for management of climate- induced disease incidents											5
		Develop research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on climate change and health issues including multidisciplinary collaborative researches											30
Minimize the health hazards associated with increased incidence of extreme events	Establishing an information and communication system on extreme events	Strengthen early warning systems of extreme events											30
		Strengthen the mechanism for sharing information between disaster management and health management agencies											15
	Improvement of disaster risk	Develop disaster risk preparedness guidelines for health care workers in vulnerable areas											10

	preparedness of health related agencies and workers	Increase the knowledge and awareness on health impacts of extreme events among health care workers (e.g. MOH, PHI)	10
	preparedness of health related agencies and workers	Improve the coordination between disaster management and health management agencies	15
Assess and prepare for health risks caused by concentration of climate altering pollutants	Conducting research studies to assess health impacts of climate altering pollutants	Conduct research studies on climate altering pollutants / O2 availability , their temporal variations and health impacts	30
		Update and assess treatment procedures and diagnostic tools	10
	Improvement of monitoring of climate altering pollutants	Establish air quality monitoring facilities in strategic locations	20
		Review and improve monitoring standards of pollutants to keep up with world standards	20
		Establish a mechanism for consulting health sector on matters concerning EPLs	20
		Establish pollutions/dispersion transport forecasting system (computer numerical modeling)	10
	Capacity development for managing health impacts of climate altering pollutants	Strengthen respiratory disease control programme	15
		Develop guidelines for controlling exposure	10
		Increase public awareness on health impacts of air pollution	10
		Train health workers on environmental health and safety	8
		Develop a mechanism to disseminate air pollution level online to the general public, high risk areas	10
Assess the impact on health due to increased heat and thermal stress	Conducting research studies to assess health impacts of heat/thermal stress	Conduct research studies on heat/thermal stress on human health	20
		Identify and assess Diagnostic tools and treatment procedures	15
		Increase public awareness on health risks of heat /thermal stress	10

Table A-14: Time plan and budget – Human settlements and infrastructure

Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	Time (years)										Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Enhance the resilience of human settlements and infrastructure against heat and water stress	Improvement and promotion of building designs for enhanced climate resilience	Mainstream climate resilience in physical and urban planning											8
		Promote climate resilient building designs											10
		Promote use of alternative materials											10
		Develop/review appropriate sector specific building standards and guidelines for urban, rural and estate sectors											8
		Promote planning the human settlement schemes so as to minimize the adverse effect (and promote) on localized and regional water resources											10
		Provide standardization of equipment such as A/C and refrigerators so they emit less GHG’s											15
	Revision of procedures and guidelines	Revise building approval systems to ensure climate resilience											5
	Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts	Conduct research studies on climate resilient building designs, green buildings and alternative materials											25
	Sectoral Capacity development	Conduct training programs for industry stakeholders											15
Minimize the impacts on human settlements and infrastructure due to erratic changes in precipitation	Enhance the capacity of infrastructure in urban settlements	Extend the capacity of drainage and sewerage systems to avoid periodic overcrowding											15
	Enhance the capacity of infrastructure in urban settlements	Rationale use of drainage infrastructure to encourage recharging of ground water systems											15
	Promote water safety and	Promote measures to ensure safety of domestic water for settlements											30

efficient utilization of surplus water

Promote use of rainwater harvesting systems to collect water in surplus periods to be used in the dry periods

Enhance the resilience of human settlements and infrastructure to extreme weather events

Promotion of disaster resilient buildings and construction

Promote disaster resilient buildings (new constructions)

Promote practice of building codes including roofing standards specially in the public buildings

Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management

Prepare hazard preparedness plans for urban, rural and estate settlements

Revisit existing preparedness plans for climate change

Develop and enforce zoning system based on hazard vulnerability

Minimize the impacts of sea level rise on coastal settlements and infrastructure

Increase the resilience of coastal settlements

Promote buildings standards which are specific to the coastal sector

Strengthening the monitoring of sea level rise

Regular monitoring of sea level rise

Prepare maps on low-lying areas vulnerable to inundation

Demarcate coastal zones vulnerable to inundation

Develop guidelines for human settlements and infrastructure in vulnerable zones

Table A-15: Time plan and budget – Ecosystems and biodiversity

Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	Time (years)										Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Enhance the resilience of natural and agro ecosystems against the impacts of climate change impacts	Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts	Conduct research studies on climate change impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity											100
	Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts	Life cycle studies: this should cover things such as changes in the sex ratios											50
	Extend the existing biodiversity protection interventions to cover climate change impacts	Prepare adaptive management programmes for climate sensitive ecosystems											50
		Protect marshes/flood retention areas vulnerable to thermal stress											20
		Develop a comprehensive plan for mitigating wild/forest fire incidents											20
		Prepare recovery plans for highly threatened ecosystems are and species											50
	Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts	Establish a comprehensive programme (GIS mapping) to monitor climate change impacts on key natural ecosystems and biodiversity											50
	Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts	Establish permanent monitoring plots for research on natural bio-diversity											30
	Enhance the participation of local communities in monitoring, conservation and management of biodiversity	Conduct awareness programs for local communities on impacts on climate change local biodiversity and ecosystems in vulnerable areas											20
		Organize local CBOs for monitoring changes in local ecosystems and bio diversity											10
		Ensure participation of local communities in adaptive management programmes											10
		Increase employment opportunities in local communities for conservation activities											10

Promotion of traditional methods of biodiversity conservation for increased resilience in agro- ecosystems

Study and Identify traditional methods of biodiversity management in agro ecosystems

Identify and promote different agro-biodiversity models suitable for different agro-climatic zones

Sectoral Capacity development

Develop research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on climate change impacts on ecosystems and biodiversity

Strengthen the existing capacities for genetic preservation of fauna and flora.

Enhance the resilience of natural and agro ecosystems against extreme weather events

Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management

Strengthen the early warning systems

Identify and collect information on ecosystems and geographical locations most vulnerable to flood and drought hazards

Prepare emergency response/contingency plans and guidelines for vulnerable areas

Minimize the impacts of sea level rise on coastal bio-diversity and ecosystem services

Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts

Conduct research studies on

Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts

Monitor regularly the development of salinity levels

Assess the changes in oceanic environment and impacts on livelihoods and food security

Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts

Assess changes in oceanic habitats and composition of species due to impacts of climate change on oceanic environment

Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts

Initiate long term monitoring of essential bio-physical parameters (National monitoring programme)

Assess the impacts of

Initiating research

Conduct research studies on impact of increased CO2

rising atmospheric CO2

studies to assess

on natural ecosystems and biodiversity

on biomass production

climate impacts

of natural vegetation

and spread of invasive

species

Table A-16: Time plan and budget – Tourism and recreation

Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	Time (years)										Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Adjustment of tourism and recreation industry to altered conditions of the destination	Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts	Conduct research studies on climate change impacts on tourism and recreation											30
	Operational adjustments in the industry	Diversify the tourism products to meet the changing conditions											15
		Develop collaborative plans with key stakeholders to adjust tourism operations in different locations											10
		Increase the awareness of tour industry operators on climate change and its impacts											8
		Improve the climate preparedness element in organizing and executing tour operations											8
		Identify tourism facilities in vulnerable areas (e.g. low- lying beaches; disaster prone areas) and make arrangements to improve the resilience											10
	Changing of promotional strategies	Assess the current promotional strategies with connection to emerging scenarios of climate change											5
	Changing of promotional strategies	Adjust the promotions to suit the different climate scenarios											10
Increase the preparedness of tourism and recreation operations to extreme weather conditions	Improvement of emergency risk preparedness and management	Prepare guidelines on managing emergencies in tour operations											8
		Train tour operators on emergency management strategies											10
		Design tourism infrastructure to meet the safety needs of operations											50
		Develop system’s capacity for smooth switching to alternate plans											20
		Establish emergency communication channels for tourists and operators											20

Establishment of

Develop a system for timely issuing of short-term

an efficient climate

weather forecasts

information

Strengthen the early warning systems

management and

communication

system

Table A-17: Time plan and budget – Export agriculture sector

Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	Time (years)										Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
Enhance the resilience of crops, animals, fish and agro- ecosystems against heat and water stress	Germ plasm improvements	Screen existing cultivars/clones for heat,water stress, flooding and resistance for biotic stress (pest and disease).											25
		Introduce new cultivars /clones tolerant to heat and drought											85
		Develop grafted/budded plants with drought resistance properties											50
	Improvement of farm and nursery management practices	Improve the management of shade trees as a climate change adaptation measure											60
		Promote suitable operational and management techniques											30
		Develop improved cropping system models for vulnerable areas/lands											30
		Promote improved nursery and plant management practices											50
	Initiating research studies to assess climate impacts	Conduct research studies on climate impacts on crop physiology, resistant cultivars and cropping systems											150
	Sector capacity development	Develop research institutes’ capacity for conducting research on tolerant cultivars/clones											150
	Sector capacity development	Develop facilities necessary to undertake controlled environment research											200
Minimize the risk of crop and health damage due to biological agents	Germ plasm improvements	Screen existing cultivars/clones for pest and disease resistance.											50
	Germ plasm improvements	Develop pest and diseases resistant varieties											50
	Improvement of farm and nursery management practices	Develop recommendations on best practices of pest and disease management											10
	Monitoring and surveillance of	Establish a surveillance programme for early detection of new diseases and pests											10

pest and disease

Develop a system forecasting risks of pest and diseases

Minimize the impact on food security due to erratic changes in precipitation

Establishment of an efficient climate information management and communication system

Develop a system for timely issuing of seasonal and short-term weather forecasts

Adjust calendar of operations with seasonal weather forecasts

Improvements in cropping systems

Promote sustainable cropping system practices for increasing the resilience of plantations and trees

Enhance the resilience of crops, animals, fish and agro- ecosystems to extreme weather events

Establishment of an efficient climate information management and communication system

Develop a system for timely issuing of short-term weather forecasts

Strengthen the early warning systems

Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management

Identify and collect information on areas most vulnerable to flood and drought hazards

Prepare hazard vulnerability maps for all crops

Develop guidelines for management of extreme events in vulnerable areas

Minimize the impacts of sea level rise on agriculture in coastal zone

Strengthening the monitoring of climate impacts

Monitor regularly the development of salinity levels

Development of protection structures

construct salinity exclusion structures and salinity barriers to control sea water intrusions to agricultural lands

Table A-18: Time plan and budget – Industry, energy and transportation

Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	Time (years)										Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Adaptation need	Adaptation option	Actions	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Minimize the impacts of rising temperature and periodic scarcity of water on energy, industry and transportation	System improvements and diversification of energy generation industry and transportation	Minimize the fluctuation of hydro power generation potential through improvements in system management											50
		Explore alternatives for maximizing the use of hydro power facilities: e.g. pump storage											20
		Improve the efficiency of transmission and distribution systems to minimize losses											100
		Diversify the energy mix with increased share of renewable energy (TNA recommendations)											100
		Factor in climate change into long-term generation plans											30
	Supply chain improvements in agro-based raw materials	Diversify the supply sources of climate sensitive raw materials											30
		Develop forward contract markets for agro-based raw materials											50
		Introduce innovative risk transfer instruments											100
	Initiating research studies to assess climate change impacts	Explore and assess the potential for developing (or retrofitting) pump storage options for hydro power generation facilities											30
		Conduct research studies on climate sensitive agro-based raw materials and options to ensure stable supply											30
Minimize the impacts of extreme weather events on energy, industry and transportation	Improvement of the climate resilience and disaster risk preparedness of industry, energy and transportation	Assess the impacts of projected changes and extreme weather scenarios on transportation systems											10
		Assess vulnerable and hazard prone areas/roads and prepare maps											10
		Identification of climate resilient improvements in transport planning, infrastructure development and implementation of plans											10
		Develop guidelines for improve the resilience of transportation system for extreme weather situations											10
		Create awareness on climate risks in transportation to commuters, drivers and transport operators											10

		Establish an early warning and hazard communication systems for commuters and drivers (mobile phones, navigation systems, radio channels)	50
	Development of climate change resilient infrastructure and production facilities	Promote climate change proof infrastructure and building design practices	50
		Identify critically vulnerable energy sources and industrial facilities in hazard prone areas	10
		Assess suitable interventions to strengthen climate resilience	10
	Improvement of disaster risk preparedness and management	Identify vulnerable areas for climate-induced disaster risks and prepare maps	10
		Develop a system for timely issuing of short-term weather forecasts	8
		Establish an early warning system of disasters to managers of energy, transport and industry	20
Minimize the impacts of sea level rise on energy, transportation and industrial facilities	Strengthening the monitoring of sea level rise	Regular monitoring of sea level rise	10
		Prepare maps on low-lying areas vulnerable to inundation	10
		Demarcate coastal zones vulnerable to inundation	10
		Develop guidelines for economic activities in vulnerable areas	10
	Increasing the preparedness for sea level rise	Identify critically vulnerable energy, transportation and industrial facilities in vulnerable areas due to inundation	10
	Increasing the preparedness for sea level rise	Develop contingency plans to gradual relocation and development of alternatives	10
	Initiating research studies to assess climate change impacts	Conduct research studies and assess the vulnerability of industries located in coastal areas (e.g. salt, coir and coconut-based industries, mineral sands, boat building industries)	30

Table A-19: Time plan and budget – Cross-cutting needs of adaptation

Cross-cutting area	Action	Time (years)										Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Cross-cutting area	Action	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10	Proposed budget (Rs. Millions)
Policy, legal and governance	Undertake a review of relevant macro and sectoral policies, ordinances acts and statutory procedures to identify options for mainstreaming climate change adaptation activities in Sri Lanka											8
	Develop policy recommendations necessary for ensuring climate change vulnerability issues are addressed in all development /management projects											15
	Carry out a policy study to explore the possibilities for application of market-based instruments to motivate adaptive actions and identify and assess feasibility of introducing innovative risk transfer tools (e.g. insurance schemes)											10
Institutional and coordination	Restructure and strengthen the Climate Change Secretariat as the National Focal Point (NFP) for implementation of NAP											100
	Establish an sustain a suitable institutional mechanism for implementation of sectoral and cross-cutting actions of NAP											60
	Organize a Forum of Civil Society Organizations (FCSO), a group of partner agencies, at national, provincial and district levels to support the implementation and coordination of community-based sectoral and cross-cutting interventions proposed by NAP											45
International cooperation and partnerships	Develop an inventory of international climate donors, funding schemes, training providers, training programs, research agencies/consortiums and events (conferences, seminars etc.) for the benefit of local stakeholders of adaptation.											5
	Establish a network of sectoral and national agencies, CSO partners, research institutes, think tanks and academics to approach international service providers through the facilitation support of the National Focal Point for funding support, technical assistance or training necessary for adaptation actions identified in NAP or supportive programs developed to achieve NAP objectives											10
	Identify a group of sectoral and national level representatives from government organizations, CSOs and private sector to create a pool of climate negotiators											10

Resource mobilization	Create a National Adaptation Fund with the collaboration of the Ministry of Finance to support the implementation of NAP actions and supportive programs	20
	Develop a ‘fast track’ mechanism for approving requests for donor funding for climate adaptation projects through the collaboration of the National Focal Point and the External Resources Department	2
	Negotiate a private channel of funding with the corporate sector for directing a share of CSR allocations for climate adaptation projects. If possible create a trust fund for channeling and pooling of funds partnered by the Finance Ministry and corporate sector members	2
Research and development	Establish national level controlled environment research facilities in selected institutes for facilitation of multi-disciplinary research	100
	Establish a national network of agencies and universities for carrying out research & development on climate adaptation, promotion of coordination among research institutes and information dissemination.	20
	Organize an annual multi-disciplinary research symposium on climate change adaptation with international participation	30
	Develop a coordinated multi-disciplinary small research grant program on thematic areas relating to climate change adaptation facilitated by the National Focal Point and managed by the national research support agencies (e.g. NSF, NRC, CARP)	100
	Establish a funding facility to undertake advanced studies on selected core areas of nationally important research	1000
	Establish a common repository of scientific and awareness materials on climate change adaptation.	30
Technology transfer and standards	Identify international technology transfer service providers and technology developers, and negotiate with them to establish technology and skills transfer opportunities for local researchers, trainers, experts, technology users and students.	10
Technology transfer and standards	Organize national level technology transfer events and programs (e.g. Dissemination programs, exhibitions, training programs and demonstrations) to transfer technology/knowledge from developers and experts to technology users.	20

Building adaptive capacity of communities	Develop a small grant facility to provide seed funding for community-level programs helpful for achieving NAP objectives to be supported by the National Climate Adaptation Fund and jointly coordinated by CSO Forum and the National Focal Point	100
	Launch a program for gathering, compiling and documentation of traditional local knowledge on climate adaptation and indigenous forecasting as a partnership program of academics, CSO members and researchers.	50
	Initiate an island wide program for identification and vulnerability assessment of religious, cultural and archaeological assets threatened by climate change implemented by experts on archaeology and culture, religious organizations, CSO members and local communities.	50
Education, training and awareness	Conduct training programs for government officers, CSO members, and private sector employees on climate change adaptation which includes integrating climate change components to existing training programmes	30
	Incorporate and further strengthen climate change knowledge in formal education	25
	Establish a media space (including social media) for climate change impacts and adaptation to enhance public awareness	15
Climate information management	Establish a National Task Force on Climate Information Products to strengthen current efforts for developing seasonal and sub-season climate forecasts	50
	Identify capacity development needs of the Department of Meteorology and provide necessary support to strengthen the capacity for offering reliable weather, sub-seasonal and seasonal forecasts	100
	Undertake a study on short and medium range indigenous weather forecasting knowledge and identify ways to incorporate it into a national climate risk surveillance program	20
	Establish a national research program on climate modeling for long-term climate projections	50
Climate- induced disaster risk reduction	Assess the disaster risk reduction needs of sectoral Climate Adaptation Cells (identified in NAP) and mainstream the implementation of them with ongoing programs of disaster risk management	10

List of Participants in the Stakeholder Consultation Workshops

Food Security
	Name	Designation	Institute
1	Dr. W. M. A. D. B. Wickramasinghe	Director	Dept of Agriculture
2	Mr. S. A. M. Azmy	Head / ESD	NARA
3	Mr. J. K. M. Chandrasiri	Additional Director	HARTI
4	Dr. Niroshan Gamage	Deputy Director/ Livestock Planning	MLRCD
5	Mr. G. D. J. Nawaratne	Senior Engineer Assistant	Agrarian Development Department, Head Office
6	Ms. L. G. K Isuruni	Assistant Director, Industry	Dept of Fisheries
7	Mr. G. G. C. Premalal	Research Officer	VRI
8	Mr. A. A. S. P. Adikari	Development Officer	Ministry of Livestock and Rural Community Development
9	Dr. (Mrs) S. M. Wijesundara	Food Sector Expert	Gamunupura, Kotalawala, Kaduwela
10	Dr. R. D. S. Jayathunga	Director, Climate Change Secretariat	State Ministry of Environment
11	Ms. H .N. K. T Dulani	Assistant Director (CCS)	State Ministry of Environment
12	Mr. Ranjith Rajapakshe	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment
13	Ms. K. K. S. Priyanthi	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment
14	Ms. Nilmini Ranasinghe	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment

Water Resources
	Name	Designation	Institute
1	Mr. S.G.R.Rajkumar	Deputy General Manager (Development)	National Water Supply & Drainage Board
2	Dr. H. Manthrithilaka	Chairman	IWMI
3	Ms. Nishadi Eriyagama	Water Resource Engineer	IWMI
4	Ms. Priyangani Gunathilaka	Deputy Director	Central Environmental Authotity

5	Mr. G.R.R Karunarathne	Deputy General Manager, Research & Development	Water Resource Board
6	Ms. Janaki Migastenna	Deputy Director (Irrigation & Water Mgt.)	Department of Irrigation
7	Mr. K P M Dissanayake	Monotoring Officer	Irrigation Management Division
8	Mr. Madduma Bandara	Deputy Director General	Mahawali Authority of Sri Lanka
9	Ms. E. L. S. Nilmini	Environment Officer	Mahawali Authority of Sri Lanka
10	Mr. Prabath Witharana	Director (NRM)	Agrarian Development Department
11	Ms. Ramya Wijesekara	Engineer (Research)	ITI
12	Dr. R. D. S. Jayathunga	Director, Climate Change Secretariar	State Ministry of Environment
13	Ms. H. N. K. T. Dulani	Assistant Director (CCS)	State Ministry of Environment
14	Mr. Ranjith Rajapakshe	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment
15	Ms. K. K. S. Priyanthi	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment
16	Ms. Nilmini Ranasinghe	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment
17	Mr. J. Ranjith Wimalasiri	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment
18	Mr. Upul Premalal	Reaserah Assistant	State Ministry of Environment
19	Ms. Dharshika Pathirana	Development Officer	State Ministry of Environment

Coastal and Marine Sector
	Name	Designation	Institute
1	Ms. Mangalika Wicramasingha	Director General	Department of Coast Conservation
2	Dr. Champa Amarasiri	Consultant	Ocean University of Sri Lanka
3	Ms. L. U. N. Sumanasekera	Director Agricultural Technology	Ministry of Agriculture
4	Mr. M. G. Ajith Pushpakumara	Deputy Director	Ministry of Agriculture
5	Dr. Terney Predeep Kumara	Director General	Marine Environment Protection Authority
6	Prof. E.I.L..Silva	Chief Executive Officer	Water Resources Science and Technology (WRST)
7	Ms. L. G. R. Isurani	Additional Director (Industry)	Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

8	Mr. B. A. P. Kapila	Additional Director	MFARD
9	Mr. D.Hettiarachchi	Director (Env. & Landscape)	Urban Development Authority
10	Mr. Arjun Rajasuriya	Coordinator, Marine & Coastal	IUCN

Health
	Name	Designation	Institute
1	Dr. Ruwan Wijayamuni	Chief Medical Officer - City of Colombo	Public Health Department, Colombo Municipal Council
2	Prof. W L Sumathipala	Chairman	National Science Foundation
3	Dr. Paba Palihawadana	Chief Epidemiologist	Epidemiology Unit, MoH
4	Ms. Subhashini Kulathunga Mudali	Director, Development	Ministry of Health & Indigenous Medicine
5	Dr. Hasitha Tissera	Director, Dengue Control	National Dengue Control Unit - MOH
6	Dr. Gogumpriya Ranasinghe	Deputy Director (Medical)	Ministry of Health & Indigenous Medicine
7	Dr. Inoka Suraweera	Consultant Community Physician	ELOH, Ministry of Health
8	Dr. K. M. Seneviratne	Regional Epidemiologist	RDHS Office, Nuwaraeliya
9	Dr. Nimal Gamagedara	Consultant Community Physician	Provincial Directorate of Health Services - Uva
10	Dr. N. P. Sumanaweera	National Consultant	World Heritage Organisation (Emergency Health Unit)
11	Dr. Asanga Ranasinghe	Mo/prov. Renal Diseases Prevention & Research Unit NCP	PDHS Office, NCP, Ministry of Health
12	Dr. Nirupa Pallewatte	Consultant, Community Physician	National Programme for Tuberculosis Control & Chest Disease
13	Dr. Dewanee Ranaweera	Consultant, Community Physician	Anti Malaria Campaign
14	Dr. H. M. P. Hewawitharana	Entomologist	Anti Maleriya Campaign
15	Dr. Ananda Jayalal	Director, E&OH	Ministry of Health
16	Ms. Sujeewa Fernando	Environment Management Officer	Ministry of Health
17	Mr. M. S. D. Munasinghe	Deputy Director	Central Environmental Authority
18	Ms. Hiranthi Jansz	Assistant Director	Central Environmental Authority

19	Dr. R.D.S. Jayathunga	Director (Climate Change)	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
20	Mrs.H.N.K.T. Dulani	Assistant Director	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
21	Mr. Ranjith Rajapaksha	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
22	Ms. K. K. S. Priyanthi	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
23	Ms. Nilmini Ranasinghe	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
24	Mr. J. Ranjith Wimalasiri	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
25	Mr. Upul Premalal	Research Assistant	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
26	Ms. T. G. W. Thiranagamage	Development Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E

Human Settlements and Infrastructure
	Name	Designation	Institute
1	Mr. R. P. Samarakkody	Additional Director General	Disaster Management Center
2	Mr. Nuwan Maduwan Arachchi	Additional Director (PP)	Disaster Management Center
3	Dr. Novil Wijesekera	Medical Officer,	Disaster Preparedness & Response Division, Ministry of Health & Indigenous Medicine
4	Mr. D. Hettiarachchi	Director (Envt)	Urban Development Authority
5	Mr. Piyal Ganepola	Deputy Project Manager	UN Habitat
6	Ms. I. S. Weerasooriya	Project Manager	UN Habitat
7	Mr. Tharindu Abhayajeewa	Project Officer	UN Habitat
8	Mr. K .C. Sugathapala	Director, Human Settlement and Planning	NBRO
9	Prof. P. K. S. Mahanama	Professor	Faculty of Architecture, Univ. of Moratuwa
10	Mr. M. A. Mohomed Piyas	Town Planner	Dept. of National Physical Planning
11	Mr. M. D. R. Prasad	Assistant Director	Ministry of Public Administration, Provincial Council & Local Govt.
12	Mr. A. G. D. L. Karunaratne	Assistant Director (NRM)	Central Environmental Authority
13	Ms. K. A. C. Senaratna	Engineer	SLSEA
14	Ms. Pornima Kalhari	Engineer	SLSEA

15	Ms. Sujeewa Fernando	Environment Management Officer (G 1)	Ministry of Health & Indigenous Medicine
16	Dr. R.D.S. Jayathunga	Director (Climate Change)	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
17	Mrs. H.N.K.T. Dulani	Assistant Director	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
18	Mr. Ranjith Rajapaksha	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
19	Ms. K. K. S. Priyanthi	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
20	Ms. Nilmini Ranasinghe	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
21	Mr. J. Ranjith Wimalasiri	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
22	Mr. Upul Premalal	Research Assistant	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E

Ecosystems and Biodiversity/Tourism and Recreation
	Name	Designation	Institute
1	Ms. Mangala Wickramanayaka	Director General	Coastal Conservation Department
2	Prof. Devaka Weerakoo	Professor	University of Colombo
3	Dr. D.H.P.Peramunagama	Director (Development)	Royal Botanical Garden
4	Dr. Athula Gnanapala	Head/Senior Lecturer	Department of Tourism Mgt., Sabaragamuwa University
5	Ms. K.B.C. Pushpalatha	Director (Extension & Training)	NAQDA
6	Mrs.Thalatha Ranasinghe	Assistant Manager	Marine Environment Protectiong Authority
7	Ms. Dammika Malsinghe	Additional Director (Operation)	Deparment of National Zoological Garden
8	Dr. K. Hettiarachchi	Deputy Director	Plant Genetic Resources Centre, Department of Agriculture
9	Mr. V.A.M. Azmy	Head (ESI)	NARA
10	Mr. S.P. Vidanage	Programm Cordinator	IUCN
	Mr. Isuru Alawatta	Assistant Conservator of Forest	Forest Department
11	Mr. Leel Randeni	Environment Management Officer	Bio Diversity Secretariat, Mo MD&E
12	Ms. Pradeepa Ranaweera	Program Assistant	Bio Diversity Secretariat, Mo MD&E

13	S.D. Rajapaksha	Development Officer	Bio Diversity Secretariat, Mo MD&E
14	Dr. R.D.S. Jayathunga	Director (Climate Change)	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
15	Ms. H.N.K.T. Dulani	Assistant Director	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
17	Mr. Ranjith Rajapaksha	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
18	Ms.. Shyamali Priyanthi	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
19	Ms. R.M.N.P. Ranasinghe	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
20	Ms. Iresha Rajapakasa	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
21	Ms. Hasula Wickramasinghe	Programm Assistant	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E

Export Agriculture Sector
	Name	Designation	Institute
1	Dr. A. P. Heenkenda	AdditionalDirector General	Dept of Export Agriculture
2	Dr. H. A. Sumanasena	Director	Dept of Export Agriculture
3	Mr. Darshana Perera	Deputy Director	SRI Lanka Export Development Board
4	Ms .Gayani Wijayathilaka	Assistant Director	SRI Lanka Export Development Board
5	Mr. L. M. J. R. Wijayawardane	Research Officer	Sugarcane Research Institute
6	Dr. C. S. Ranasinghe	Head/ Plant Physiology Division	Coconut Research Institute
7	Ms. D. N. Ambepitiya	Additional Director (Planning)	Ministry of Irrigation and Agriculture
8	Mr. N. S. Jayalath	Assistant General Manager	Coconut Cultivation Board
9	Mr. G. R. Bandula Kumara	Deputy General Manager	Coconut Cultivation Board
10	Mr .S. S. B. Rathnayake	Assistant General Manager	Sri lanka Cashew Crop
11	Dr. V. H. L. Rodrigo	Additional Director	RRDSL
12	Mr. E. S. Munasinghe	Senior Research Officer	RRLSL
13	Ms .T. L. Wijerathne	Research Assistant	TRI - Talawakele
14	Mr. H. I. C. Jayasooriya	Research Officer	HARTI
15	Dr. R.D.S. Jayathunga	Director (Climate Change)	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E

16	Ms. H.N.K.T. Dulani	Assistant Director	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
17	Mr. Ranjith Rajapaksha	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
18	Ms. K. K. S. Priyanthi	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
19	Ms. Nilmini Ranasinghe	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
20	Ms. Ambika Tennakoon	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
21	Mr. Upul Premalal	Reaserah Assistant	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
22	Mr. Dasun Hewapathirana	Reaserah Assistant	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E

Industry , Energy and Transport
	Name	Designation	Institute
1	Mr. Asitha K Senaviratna	Additional Secretary.	Ministry of Industry & Commerce
2	Mr. A.H.S. Wijesinghe	Additional Secretary (Development)	Ministry of Power and Energy
3	Mr. Sena Peiris	Cheif executive Officer	National Cleaner Production Centre
4	Mr. S.A.L. Subasinghe	Assistant Director (planning)	Ministry of Transport
5	Mr.S.N. Bentotage	Senior Lecture	University o f Moratuwa
6	Mr.Susantha Udugedara	RECP Technologist	National Cleaner Production Centre
7	Mr.S.H.U. De Silva	Director (ESD)	Road Development Authority
8	Mr. Ronald Comebe	Deputy General Manager	Ceylon Electricity Board
9	Mr. P.G. Joseph	Consultant	Sri Lanka Carbon Fund
10	Dr. R.D.S. Jayathunga	Director (Climate Change)	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
11	Ms. H.N.K.T. Dulani	Assistant Director	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
12	Mr. Ranjith Rajapaksha	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
13	Ms .K. K. S. Priyanthi	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
14	Ms. Nilmini Ranasinghe	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
15	Ms. Ambika Tennakoon	Environment Management Officer	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
16	Mr. Upul Premalal	Reaserah Assistant	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E
17	Mr .Dasun Hewapathirana	Reaserah Assistant	Climate Change Secretariat, MoMD&E

Cross Cutting National Issues of Adaptation
	Name	Designation	Institute
1	Mr. Anura Sathurusinghe	Conservator General of Forests	Forest Department
2	Dr.Terney Predeep Kumara	Director General	Marine Environment Protection Authority
3	Mr.S.G.R.Rajkumar	Deputy General Manager (Development)	National Water Supply & Drainage Board
4	Mr. S. A. M. Azmy	Head / ESD	NARA
5	Ms.Janaki Migastenna	Deputy Director (Irrigation & Water Mgt.)	Dept. of Irrigation
6	Dr. D.H.P.Peramunagama	Director (Development)	Royal Botanical Garden
7	Mr. Nuwan Maduwan Arachchi	Additional Director (PP)	DMC
8	Ms. D. N. Ambepitiya	Additional Director (Planning)	Ministry of Irrigation and Agriculture
9	Ms. T. L. Wijerathne	Research Assistant	TRI - Talawakele
10	Mr. Darshana Perera	Deputy Director	Sri Lanka Export Development Board
11	Mr. M. A. Mohomed Piyas	Town Planner	Dept. of National Physical Planning
12	Dr. C. S. Ranasinghe	Head/ Plant Physiology Division	CRI
13	Ms. Manjula Wimalasena	Legal Officer	Central Environmental Authority
14	Ms. A. L. S. Nazeema	Director	Ministry of Highways, Higher Education and Investment Promotion
15	Ms. Anoja Herath	Director	Ministry of Irrigation and Agriculture
16	Mr. Sena Peiris	Cheip executive Officer	NCPC
17	Mr. P.G. Joseph	Consultant	SLCF
18	Dr. (Mrs) S. M. Wijesundara	Food Sector Expert	No. 35B, Second Lane, Gamunupura, Kotalawala, Kaduwela
19	Prof. Budhi Marambe	Senior Lecture	Faculty of Agriculture/ UoP
20	Mr. Ranga Pallawela	Director	Jana Thakshana
21	Mr. Hemantha Withanage	Executive Director	Center for Environment Justice
22	Mr. U. R. Wickramaarachchi	Fisheries Inspector	Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
23	Ms. A. K. R. Dilshani	Fisheries Inspector	Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources

24	Ms. S. A. Mahaarachchi	Engineer (Reaearch and Design)	Department of Coast Conservation and Coastal Resources Management
25	Mr. J. A. V. S. Jayakody	Deputy Director	Road Development Authority
26	Ms. Sukanthy Vairamuthu	Development Officer	Ministry of Social Services, Welfare and Livestock Development
27	Dr. Niroshan Gamage	Deputy Director	Ministry of Social Services, Welfare and Livestock Development
28	Mr. Roshan Salinda	Programme Manager	Green Movement of Sri Lanka

Validation and Finalization Workshop
	Name	Designation	Institute
1	Mr. J. K. M. Chandrasiri	Additional Director	HARTI
2	Ms. L.U.N. Sumanasekara	Director Agriculture Technology	Ministry of Agriculture
3	Mr. R. P. Smarakkody	Additional Director General	Disaster Management Center
4	Mr. A. H. S. Wijesinghe	Additional Secretary (Development)	Ministry of Power and Energy
5	Dr. A. P. Heenkenda	Additional Director General	Department of Export Agriculture
6	Ms. Janaki Migastenna	Director (Water management)	Department of Irrigation
7	Mr. B. A. P. Kapila	Additional Director	Ministry of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources
8	Mr. S. H. U. De Silva	Director (ESD)	Road Development Authority
9	Mr. S. G. R. Rajkumar	Deputy Genaral Manager (Development)	National Water Supply and Drainage Board
10	Mr. Bharatha Ramanayake	Director (Planning)	Ministry of Fihsries
11	Dr. Terney Predeep Kumara	General Manager	Marine Environmental Protection Authority
12	Mr. Madduma Bandara	Director (Environment)	Mahaweli Authority of Sri Lanka
13	Mr. A. Z. J. Singarayer	Senior Engineering Assistant	Agrarian Development Department
14	Mr. K. Nanayakkara	Director (Development)	Royal Botanical Garden
15	Dr. Inoka Suraeera	Consultant Community Physician	ELOH, Ministry of Health
16	Ms. Sujeewa Fernando	Environmental Management Officer	Ministry of Health
17	Pro. W. L. Sumathipala	Consultant	Ministry of Mhaweli Development and Environment

18	Mr. Aheeyer	Management Officer	IWMI
19	Mr. A.L. Chandrajith De Silva	Senior Research Officer	Sugarcane Research Institute
20	Mr. S. S. B. Rathnayake	Assistant General Manager	Sri Lanka Cashew Crop
21	Mr. T. L. Wijerathna	Research Officer	TRI - Thalawakele
22	Ms. Anusha Maduwanthi	Town Planner	Department of national Physical Planning
23	Dr. H. A. Sumanasena	Director research	Research Station, Dept. of Export Agriculture
24	Mr. R. A. S. Rnawaka	Senior Engineering	Department of Coast Conservation & Coastal Resource Management
25	Mr. Piripaharan	Senior Environment Officer	Central Environmental Authority
26	Prof. Budhi Marambe	Senior Lecture	Faculty of Agriculture/UoP
27	Dr. B. U. R. Punyawardane	Head/ Climatology Division	Department of Agriculture
28	Mr. M. S. P. Jayawardena	Deputy Director	Meteorology Department
29	Mr. S. Shivatharsan	Fisheries Inspector	Department of Fisheries and AR
30	Mr. Laksiri Nanayakkara	Project Specialist	World Food Programme
31	Mr. Wijendran Paramasami	Project Coordinator	World Food Programme
32	Dr. Athula Senaratne	Research Fellow	Institute of Policy Management (IPS)
33	Ms. Kanchana Wikramasinghe	Research Economist	Institute of Policy Management (IPS)
34	Mr. Chathura Rodrigo	Research Economist	Institute of Policy Management (IPS)
35	Mr. Vajira Bandara	Project Officer	Institute of Policy Management (IPS)
36	Dr. R.D.S. Jayathunga	Director, climate change	State Ministry of Environment
37	Mr. Ajith Silva	Director (PP)	State Ministry of Environment
38	Ms. H. N. K. Dulani	Assistant Director	State Ministry of Environment
39	Mr. Ranjith Rajapaksha	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment
40	Ms. K. K. S. Priyanthi	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment
41	Ms. Iresha Rajapaksha	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment
42	Ms. Ambika Tennakoon	Environment Management Officer	State Ministry of Environment
43	Mr. Upul Premalal	Research Assistant	State Ministry of Environment

44	Ms. Hasula Wikramasinghe	Programme Assistant	State Ministry of Environment
45	Ms. Methmali Rajaguru	Programme Assistant	State Ministry of Environment