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 Myanmar’s National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) to Climate Change 2012

The Myanmar National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) Report is prepared in the framework of the LCDF funded project ” Preparation of National Adaptation Programmes of Action ” implemented by United Nations 

Environment Programe (UNEP) and Executed by the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology, Ministry of 

Transport of Union of the Republic of Myanmar

National Coordinating Body: National Environmental 

Conservation Committee, Ministry of Environmental 

Conservation and Forestry

Executing Agency: Department of Meteorology and 

Hydrology, Ministry of Transport 

Implementing Agency: United Nations Environment 

Programme 

^{_{Message from H.E U Nyan Tun Aung, Union Minister for the Ministry of Transport, Republic of the Union of Myanmar}} 

 It is my pleasure indeed to make a few remark on the National Adaptation Programmes of Action for climate change -NAPA of  Myanmar. Situated in the Southeast Asia, endowed with rich water resources,   fertile land, long coastal zone, Myanmar economy is traditionally based on the Agricultural activities on which about 70% of the 53 million population engaged. Therefore favourable climate means successful harvest and good economy, and extreme climate poses hardship to the livelihood of communities involved and it may further hamper the national development activities. Myanmar notices the climate change is taking place in the country such as decreasing southwest monsoon duration, increasing cyclone seasons, increasing cyclone landfall frequency on Myanmar coast, extreme rain spells, etc. The communities in the rural areas are the hardest hit. It is relevant to mention the climate change event of Cyclone Nargis in May 2008. The date of cyclone development was earlier, change of tract from some westward to eastward was too abrupt and latitude of landfall was the record lowest. The Government of Myanmar has put concerted all out effort in collaboration with national/ international organizations to restore the affected areas to normalcy as fast as possible.  

  Myanmar is exposed to various climate hazards such as cyclone, heavy rain, flood, extreme temperatures, drought and sea level rise. The events may be further complicated by climate change due to global warming.  Myanmar has to go along with these changing  climate. The government is taking initiatives to implement Myanmar Action  Plan on Disaster Risk  Reduction. Additionally Myanmar needs to take climate  change adaptation measures immediately for sustainable development which also addresses   the poverty alleviation  of poor  communities of the country. In the NAPA preparation process, urgent adaptation needs of the rural communities are assessed through application of Participatory Rural Appraisal PRA in Nyaung Shwe, Kyauk Pa Daung and Bogale townships which respectively represents the  hilly region, the dry zone and the coastal area with coordination of local General Administration Offices and  UNDP/ICDP. 

 The adaptation needs are further identified as projects by mainstreaming into national plans by Working Groups on key socio-economic sectors. In the project prioritization, NAPA applied  socioeconomic criteria mainly based on recommendation suggested  by Least Development Countries Expert Group LEG. Myanmar is convinced that implementation of NAPA will be beneficial to the rural communities and the nation by sustainable development.    

^{_{List of Contributors}}

NAPA Project Management Team (PMT) 

Sectoral Working Groups 

List of Acronyms 

Executive Summary

Myanmar‟s climate is changing and climate variability already affects communities and socioeconomic sectors in the country. Some climate change impacts are already observable and there is broad scientific consensus that further change will occur. Even with significant global climate mitigation (activities and technologies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions), economic sectors, local communities and natural ecosystems in Myanmar will be strongly affected by climate change as a result of the emissions already in the atmosphere. Adaptation is therefore necessary for reducing Myanmar‟s vulnerability to climate variability and change.  

National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) serve as simplified, rapid and direct channels for Least Developed Countries to identify and communicate priority activities to address their urgent and immediate adaptation needs. NAPAs emerged from the multilateral discussions on adaptation measures within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)^[1],[2]. Myanmar‟s NAPA therefore specifies 32 priority activities (referred to as Priority Adaptation Projects)for effective climate change adaptation for eight main sectors/themes (i.e. four Project Options per sector/theme), namely: i) Agriculture; ii) Early Warning Systems; iii) Forest; iv) Public Health; v) Water Resources; vi) Coastal Zone; vii) Energy, and Industry; and viii) Biodiversity(Table 1).  

The Myanmar NAPA preparation process followed the guidelines outlined by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Least Developed Countries (LDC) Expert Group^[3],[4]. Seven main steps were followed: i) establishment of NAPA Project Management and multidisciplinary teams (April 2011); ii) synthesis of available information (May – July 2011); iii) stakeholder and public consultation to establish Myanmar‟s adaptation needsand potential adaptation projects/options(July – September 2011); iv) sectoral working group meetings to identify and draft a list of Adaptation Project Options(October – November 2011); v) sectoral working group meetings for screening, ranking and prioritising identified Adaptation Project Options (October – November 2011 and March-April 2012). This entailed using a Multi-criteria analyses (a series of 15 criteria developed by the LDC Expert Group) to rank and prioritise Adaptation Project Optionsfor implementation. Resulting scores for each Adaptation Project Option were used to determine the 32Priority Adaptation Projects; vi) public Review Process of NAPA draft (February to April 2012); and vii) development of the NAPA project profiles using focus group discussions and meetings with working group members as well as other key stakeholders (March - April 2012).  

Priority Adaptation Projects as well as sectors were selected/prioritised using participatory discussions and analyses including expert opinion as well as community and cultural/traditional knowledge (See Chapter 4 and 6 as well as Annex 2). Capacity building, knowledge and monitoring requirements were considered and contrasted across all 32 Priority Adaptation Projects. A detailed project profile is presented for each Priority Adaptation Project in Annex 1. This includes: i) Project Objective; ii) Project Area; iii) Beneficiaries; iv) Period; v) Estimated Budget; vi) Project Framework including Main Components, Outcomes, and Outputs; vii) Agencies Involved; viii) Baseline Information; and ix) Climate Change Adaptation Rationale. Although, project profiles are presented separately for each Priority Adaptation Project, it is important to note that project ideas/activities/elements can be blended across projects and sectors when designing final project concepts for implementation in the country. 

Sectors in which Priority Adaptation Projects should be implemented first include: 1) Agriculture, Early Warning Systems and Forest(First Priority Level Sectors). This is followed by: 2): Public Health and Water Resources (Second Priority Level Sectors); 3) Coastal Zone (Third Priority Level Sector); and 4): Energy and Industry, and Biodiversity (Fourth Priority Level Sectors).  

Table 1. Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation in Myanmar to address immediate needs for building climate change resilience of vulnerable communities.  

Table of Contents 

Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................ 11

Introduction and Outline of Myanmar’s NAPA ................................................................................. 14

1. Introduction and Setting ............................................................................................................. 16
2. Background and Context ................................................................................................................... 16

Environmental Stresses and Impacts on Socio-Economic Sectors .................................................. 21

Myanmar‟s Status under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Institutional Arrangements for Climate Change Adaptation ....................................................... 24

1. Myanmar’s Framework for Climate Change Adaptation ......................................................... 26

Observed Climate Variability/Change in Myanmar ........................................................................... 26

Projected Climate Change and Vulnerability for Myanmar (2001-2100) .......................................... 28

Myanmar NAPA Framework ............................................................................................................. 35

1. Identification of Adaptation Needs and Project Options ....................................................... 43

Increasing the climate change resilience of vulnerable socio-economic sectors ............................. 43

1. Selecting Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation .................................................... 54

Ranking and Prioritising Adaptation Project Options ........................................................................ 54

1. List of Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation in Myanmar .................................... 56
2. NAPA Preparation Process ........................................................................................................ 61

The Evolution and Progress of the NAPA ......................................................................................... 61

Institutional Arrangements ................................................................................................................ 61

Steps in the Development of the Myanmar NAPA ............................................................................ 61

1. ANNEXES ..................................................................................................................................... 65

Annex 1: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles i.e. information for project implementation ........... 65

Agriculture Sector: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles .................................................................... 65

Early Warning Systems: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles ........................................................... 73

Forest: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles ...................................................................................... 78

Public Health: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles ........................................................................... 86

Water Resources Sector: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles ......................................................... 91

Coastal Zone: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles ........................................................................... 96

Energy: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles ................................................................................... 103

Biodiversity: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles ............................................................................ 110

Annex 2: Summary of Myanmar‟s Participatory Rural Appraisal ............................................... 116

Outline of the PRA Process ............................................................................................................ 116

Summary of PRA Results ............................................................................................................... 117

Prioritization and Ranking of Identified Adaptation Interventions ................................................... 122

Annex 3: The observed temperature and rainfall from weather stations across Myanmar. Data recorded from 1951 – 2007 (some stations only started recording in 1961, 1971, and 1981). .. 124

Annex 4: Myanmar‟s predicted temperature and rainfall from seven weather stations according to the Providing Regional Climates for Impacts Studies (PRECIS) model. ................................ 125

Annex 5: Comprehensive list of Myanmar‟s national and multilateral treaties and agreements126

List of Figures 

Figure 1.(a) Location map of Myanmar and; (b) administrative units including location of the capital 

Naypyitaw and the largest city Yangon. ................................................................................................ 16

Figure 2.(a) Myanmar‟s estimated population density; and (b) major and other ethnic groups. ......... 17

Figure 3.(a) Elevation above sea-level and mountain ranges in Myanmar; (b) major rivers in 

Myanmar and (c) the Ayeyarwaddy River Basin. .................................................................................. 18

Figure 4.(a) Myanmar‟s three agro-ecological zones; and (b) eight physiogeographic regions. ........ 19

Figure 5.(a) Annual average rainfall; and (b) annual average temperatures over Myanmar. ............. 19

Figure 6.(a) Forest cover status (2006); and (b) Forest types in Myanmar. ....................................... 21

Figure 7.Departure from the mean temperature over the period 1960 to 2005 (Heat Index-black line) indicating: i) more frequent hot years since 1976; and ii) a linear increase in temperature over the time 

period (Linear– Blueline). ...................................................................................................................... 26

Figure 8.Departure from the mean normal monsoon duration (144 days) over the period 1950-2005 

(Blue line) indicating a relative shorter annual monsoon season since 1975. ...................................... 27

Figure 9.Predicted temperature trends for the seven physiographic regions in Myanmar (PRECIS 

model – Annex 4). ................................................................................................................................. 29

Figure 10.Predicted rainfall trends for the seven physiographic regions in Myanmar (PRECIS model-

Annex 4). ............................................................................................................................................... 29

Figure 11.(a) Vulnerability of areas and Regions/States to climate change-related increases in intensity and severity of extreme weather events; and (b) the vulnerability of the main socio-economic sectors in Myanmar to extreme weather events as well as a range of other predicted climate change impacts. ................................................................................................................................................. 32

Figure 12.(a) Myanmar‟s overall climate change vulnerability index (taking into account areas and socio-economic sectors most at risk); and (b) climate change vulnerability index for Myanmar 

considering population density. ............................................................................................................. 32

Figure 13.The institutions and teams involved in the NAPA preparation process. ............................. 61

Figure 14.An outline of the steps used in the Myanmar NAPA preparation process .......................... 62

List of Tables 

Table 1.Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation in Myanmar to address immediate needs for 

building climate change resilience of vulnerable communities. .............................................................. 9

Table 2.Description of climate hazards/extreme weather events that affect Myanmar including the highest impact sectors, areas and direct/indirect impacts. ................................................................... 22

Table 3.Detailed projected climate change trends across Myanmar for 2001-2100. Climate change predictions for annual rainfall indicate increases in annual average rainfall over the relevant time period (i.e. non-cumulative). For example an increase of ~228mm per annum over the time period 2001-2020 (see below) specifies that the annual average rainfall across 2001-2020 will increase by 228mm relative to the baseline modelled annual average rainfall (See Annex 4 for baseline modelled averages and relevant comparisons). ................................................................................................... 29

Table 4.The areas and Regions/States that are most vulnerable to sea-level rise as well as climate change-related increases in occurrence and severity of extreme weather events .............................. 31

Table 5.First Priority Level Sector‟s top Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation in Myanmar (Please see Chapter 5 and Annex 1 for the top 32 Priority Adaptation Projects for eight socio-

economic sectors). ................................................................................................................................ 36

Table 6.The seven main steps of the Myanmar NAPA preparation process. ..................................... 37

Table 7.Characteristics of vulnerable areas and livelihoods that were used to select participants to represent vulnerable communities within Myanmar‟s three agro-ecological zones. ............................. 43

Table  2. Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the 

Agriculture Sector to climate change impacts.......................................................................................................  42

Table 9.Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of socio-economic sectors and communities to climate change impacts. ........................ 46

Table 10.Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the 

vulnerability of the Forest Sector to climate change impacts. ............................................................... 47

Table 11.Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the Public Health Sector to climate change impacts..................................................... 48

Table 12.Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the Water Resources Sector to climate change impacts. ............................................. 49

Table 13.Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the Coastal Zone Sector to climate change impacts. ................................................... 50

Table 14.Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the 

vulnerability of the Energy and Industry Sector to climate change impacts. ........................................ 52

Table 15.Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the 

vulnerability of the Biodiversity Sector to climate change impacts. ...................................................... 53

Table 16.Selection Criteria used to rank and prioritise Adaptation Project Options ............................ 54

Table 17.Priority levels assigned to NAPA socio-economic sectors by the NAPA team and further 

refined through a public review process. .............................................................................................. 55

Table 18.Priority Adaptation Projects (first to fourth priority projects) for implementation in Myanmar

 .............................................................................................................................................................. 56

Table 19.Example of villages and village representatives from different socio-economic groups included in the PRA assessment approaches per township surveyed. .............................................. 116

Table 20. The variety of participatory tools and methods used by the PRA teams for collecting 

information and data from vulnerable communities. ........................................................................... 116

Table 21.Future changes in temperature and precipitation for Myanmar based on a number of global 

and regional climate models. .............................................................................................................. 125

Table 22.The weather stations used for the Providing Regional Climates for Impacts Studies (PRECIS) model, detailing the relevant state and physiographic region represented by each station.

 ............................................................................................................................................................ 125

Introduction and Outline of Myanmar’s NAPA

There is an urgent need for Myanmar‟s communities and economic sectors to adapt to climate change and variability. This is because actual and potential impacts are becoming more evident, including: i) increased temperatures, ii) rainfall variability; and iii) more frequent, intense and widespread extreme weather events such as cyclones, floods, intense rains, droughts and hightemperatures.  

According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change‟s (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report^[5], climate change adaptation includes: “initiatives and measures to reduce the vulnerability of human and natural systems to actual and/or expected climate change”. Climate change adaptation is necessary in Myanmar as even with significant reductions in carbon emissions (i.e. global climate mitigation) the impacts of climate change will still occur as a result of the lag in the climate system. The need for adaptation is compounded by the growing populations and economies in Myanmar‟s most vulnerable areas.  

National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPAs) provide a process for Least Developed Countries (LDCs) to identify and implement priority activities/projects to address urgent and immediate adaptation needs. The concept of NAPAs emerged from multilateral discussions on adaptation within the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)^[6],[7]. Myanmar‟s NAPA (hereafter referred to as the “NAPA”) covers 32 priority activities (hereafter referred to as Priority Adaptation Projects) for implementation in the country. This includes four Priority Adaptation Projects for eight main socio-economic sectors/themes: i) Agriculture; ii) Early Warning Systems; iii) Forest; iv) Public Health; v) Water Resources; vi) Coastal Zone; vii) Energy and Industry; and viii) Biodiversity (see Chapter 5 and Annex 1). 

Priority Adaptation Projects included in the NAPA target areas where communities are considered most vulnerable to climate change. Priority Adaptation Projects have been identified using existing research on the impacts of climate change as well as in-country Participatory Rural Appraisals (PRA, see Annex 2). Furthermore, they have been prioritised using a set of 15 weighted selection criteria from a list of 77 Adaptation Project Options identified for the country. The NAPA target audience is broad and includes individuals in government institutions, International Agencies, NGOs, and the private sector. 

The outline of the NAPA is as follows: 

Chapter 1: Introduction and Setting introduces background information that is relevant to the NAPA process such as Myanmar‟s main environmental stresses including climate variability/climate change and the effects on socio-economic sectors. 

Chapter 2: Myanmar’s Framework for Climate Change Adaptationsummarises the main impacts of climate variability/climate change on socio-economic sectors and communities in Myanmar. This is based on previous studies, expert opinion and traditional/cultural knowledge. The chapter also focuses on the NAPA‟s overall goal, objectives and strategies including how the NAPA fits into Myanmar‟s economic/political/social development goals, current institutional frameworks and national/multi-lateral environmental agreements. Lastly, this chapter describes the potential barriers for achieving the NAPA‟s goals and thus implementing climate change adaptation in the country. 

Chapter 3: Identification of Adaptation Needs and Project Options describes Myanmar‟s current coping mechanisms for managing climate change andpresents a list of 77 Adaptation Options for addressing specific climate change impacts and associated vulnerabilities. Approximately eight to ten Adaptation Options are presented and ranked per socio-economic sector/theme, namely: i) Agriculture; ii) Early Warning Systems; iii) Forest; iv) Public Health; v) Water resources; vi) Coastal Zone; vii) Energy, and Industry; and viii) Biodiversity. 

Chapter 4: Criteria for Selecting Priority Adaptation Projectsdescribes the weighted selection criteria that were used by local communities and experts for selecting and ranking the 77 Adaptation Project Options respectively.  

Chapter 5:List of Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation in Myanmar presents a table of 32 Priority Adaptation Projects that address Myanmar‟s urgent and immediate adaptation needs. The table includes: i) Project Title; ii) Project Objective; iv) Project Area; and v) Executing Agency for each Adaptation Project. Detailed information per project is presented as ~1-2 page project profiles in Annex 1. Project profiles include: i) Project Objective; ii) Project Area; iii) Beneficiaries; iv) Period; v) Estimated Budget; vi) Project Framework including Main Components, Outcomes, and Outputs; vii) Agencies involved; viii) Baseline information; and ix) Climate Change Adaptation Rationale. 

Chapter 6:NAPA Preparation Process describes the methodologies and development processes used for the compilation of Myanmar‟s NAPA. This includes the process of consultation, project selection and prioritisation techniques, methods for evaluation and monitoring processes. 

1.  Introduction and Setting  

Background and Context 

Location  

The Republic of the Union of Myanmar (Myanmar) is situated on the western end of Southeast Asia 

(between 9º 55‟, 28º15‟ N and 92º 10', 101º 10' E). It is bordered by the Andaman Sea and the Bay of Bengal (2,330 km), Thailand (2,325 km), Laos (235 km), China (2,185 km), India (1,454 km) and Bangladesh (258 km) (Figure 1a). Myanmar is the largest country in Southeast Asia, covering ~ 676,578 km², extending 800 km east to west and 1,300 km north to south.  

Administrative Units

Myanmar is divided into 14 administrative units comprising seven States (Kachin, Kayah, Kayin, Chin, 

Mon, Shan and Rakhine) and seven Regions (formerly called divisions) (Magway, Mandalay, Sagaing, Bago, Tanintharyi, Ayeyarwady and Yangon) (Figure 1 b). Yangon is the largest city in the country. However, the smaller but more central Naypyitaw serves as the capital^[8]. States and Regions are subdivided into districts, which are further subdivided into townships, sub-townships, wards, village tracts and villages.  

Figure 1. (a)Location map of Myanmar and; (b) administrative units including location of the capital Naypyitaw and the largest city Yangon^[9].

Population 

Myanmar has an estimated population of 54.6 million (73 people per km²)^[10],[11]. Approximately 66% of the population live in rural areas with 33% living in urban areas¹². The majority of the population is concentrated in the Ayeyarwaddy basin, situated in between the Rakhine Yoma and the Shan 

Plateau. This includes the areas in the Central Belt (Sagaing, Magway and Mandalay Regions), the Ayeyarwady Delta, Yangon Deltaic region and parts of the Shan Plateau (Figure 2a). Regions are predominantly inhabited by the dominant ethnic group Bamar. States are essentially Regions that are inhabited by other ethnic groups (Figure 2b)^[12]. 

Figure 2. (a) Myanmar‟s estimated population density^[13]; and (b) major and other ethnic groups^[14].

Economy 

Myanmar‟s economy is one of the least developed in the world. In the past, GDP growth has been relatively slow averaging ~2.9% annually. A change of government in 2011, however, induced a number of policy reforms that increased GDP growth to 10% per annum. In 2011, Agriculture contributed ~43% to GDP, services ~36.6% and industry ~20.5%^[15]. Agriculture, forestry, and fisheries constitute the largest contribution to the economy. Approximately 75% of the rural population rely on the agriculture, livestock and fisheries sectors for their livelihoods. Other major livelihood activities in Myanmar utilise the following major products: i) wood and wood products; ii) copper; iii) tin; iv) tungsten; v) iron; vi) cement; vii) construction materials; viii) pharmaceuticals; ix) fertilizer; x) natural gas; xi) garments; xii) jade; and xiii) gems^[16]. 

Physical Features and Topography 

Myanmar slopes from an elevation of 5,881 m in the extreme north at Mount Hkakabo (the country‟s highest peak) to the Ayeyarwady (Irrawaddy) and Sittang (Sittoung) river deltas at sea-level in the south. There are three main mountain ranges, namely the i) Rakhine Yoma (western range 400 km including the Patkai, Naga, Mizo, Chin and Arakan hills/mountains), ii) Bago Yoma/Pegu Mountains (south-central range 435 km), and ii) the Shan Plateau (eastern range) (Figure 3a). The mountain ranges divide the country into three river systems, the: i) Ayeyarwady, which is the longest river system in Myanmar (Irrawaddy), ii) Sittoung; and ii) Salween (Thanlwin) (Figure 3b). The Ayeyarwady (2,170 km long), with its major tributary the Chindwin (960 km) has a vast drainage area (~255,081 km²) (Figure 3c) that supports a range of socio-economic sectors and livelihoods in the country. As the Ayeyarwady enters the sea it forms a delta of ~50,400 km². 

Figure 3. (a)Elevation above sea-level and mountain ranges in Myanmar^[17]; (b) major rivers in Myanmar and (c) the Ayeyarwaddy River Basin^[18].

The country as a whole can be divided into three main agro-ecological zones: i) Central Dry; ii) Coastal; and iii) Hilly (Figure 4a). These zones can be further subdivided in eight physiographic regions: i) Northern Hilly; ii) Central Dry; iii) Rakhine Coastal; iv) Western Hilly; v) Eastern Hilly (Shan Plateau); vi) Ayeyarwaddy Delta; vii) Yangon Deltaic; and viii) Southern Coastal (including Tanintharyi coastal strip) (Figure 4b)^[19].  

Climate 

Myanmar has a tropical to subtropical monsoon climate with three seasons: i) hot, dry intermonsoonal (mid-February to mid-May); ii) rainy southwest monsoon (mid-May to late October); and iii) cool relatively dry northeast monsoon (late October to mid-February). Mean annual rainfall is the lowest in the Central Dry Zone (500-1000 mm per year), increases in the Eastern and Northern Hilly regions, and is the highest in the Southern and Rakhine Coastal regions (2,500 – 5,500 mm)^[20](Figure 5a). Mean temperature ranges from 32°C in the coastal and delta areas to 21°C in the northern lowlands^[21](Figure 5b). Seasonal temperatures generally vary greatly throughout most of Myanmar. In the Central Dry Zone temperatures range from a maximum of 40-43^oC in the hot/dry season to1015^oC in the cool/relatively dry season and decrease to -1ºC or 0ºC at times in the highlands. Seasonal temperatures do not vary much in the southern parts of the country^[22]. Myanmar‟s west coast is subject to frequent tropical storms and cyclones during October to December with a secondary peak in April to May^{[23][24],[25]}.

 26

Figure 5. (a) Annual average rainfall²⁷; and (b) annual average temperatures over Myanmar.  

²⁶Base topographic maps: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hlawga_National_Park

Water Resources^[26]

Myanmar has abundant water resources comprising four principle river basins (Ayeyarwady, Chindwin, Sittaung and Thanlwin/Salween) with a catchment area of ~737,800 km². This providesrenewable water resources of ~880 km³to 1082 km³per year (surface water resources volume)^[27]. Water availability, however, is highly variable between wet and dry seasons. Out of total fresh water utilised, approximately 70% is consumed by the agriculture sector. This is followed by 7% for domestic use and 3% for industrial purposes^[28].

Agriculture 

Agriculture is the predominant sector in Myanmar^[29]. The wide variety of agro-ecological tracts lead to farmers growing more than 60 different crops including both tropical and temperate varieties. The predominant food crop is rice, which is cultivated across ~50% of Myanmar‟s agricultural land^[30]. Other cereal crops include wheat, maize and millet. Furthermore, crops commonly cultivated for domestic use include onions, potatoes, garlic, cassava, sweet potatoes, oilseed (groundnut, sesame, sunflower), and pulses and beans (black gram, chickpea, soybean, pigeon pea)^[31]. Cotton, sugarcane, jute and rubber are cultivated as industrial crops for both domestic use and for export. Maize is grown predominantly for export and livestock feed^[32]. The majority of the farmers are small-scale landholders with an average lot size of 2.27 ha^[33]. At a national level, Myanmar produces a food surplus. However, as a result of geographical differences there are many areas/villages suffering from inadequate food supplies^[34]. Agriculture and crop production in Myanmar are strongly affected by rainfall as crop cultivation is mostly rain-fed^[35]. The irrigated area of agricultural land in Myanmar increased from 12.5% in 1987/88, to 18% in 2006/7. 

Forest Resources 

Myanmar is rich in natural forests and approximately half (49% or ~317,730 km²) of the total land area is forested (Figure 6a)^[36]. Forest type and distribution is mostly dependent upon the landscape of the country (Figure 6b): 

• the delta and coastal regions comprise mangrove and estuarine forests;  
• the arid and semi-arid regions comprise deciduous and dipterocarpus forests; 
• the low rainfall areas (particularly the Central Dry Zone and surrounding areas) comprise dry thorn and scrubland forests; 
• the high rainfall regions comprise evergreen forests, and 
• the subtropical high altitudinal areas comprise hill evergreen and sub-alpine forests. 

The forests in Myanmar underpin the development of a range of socio-economic sectors and local livelihoods. Forests provide revenue from the supply of forest products and services. They also provide a number of ecological supporting functions such as sequestering carbon, regulating microclimates, protecting top soils from rain and sun, stabilising soils and providing habitats for globally important animal/plant species^[37]e.g. Bengal tigers and Asian elephants^[38]. 

Figure 6. (a) Forest cover status (2006); and (b) Forest types in Myanmar.

Public health 

Main health risks in Myanmar include limited clean drinking water and poor sanitation services. Furthermore, food insecurity is widespread. Many communities, in particular pregnant women and children, face sub-standard diets. As a result, ~40% of children below the age of five have stunted growth and ~30% are underweight. In addition, pregnancy related deaths represent the leading cause of mortality with 230 to 580 maternal deaths per 100,000 live births^[39]. The poor living standards in the country assist the spread of vector borne diseases (e.g. diarrhoea, cholera, influenza, malaria, dengue fever, yellow fever, tuberculosis) which are a major cause of morbidity and mortality. Diarrhoea is common throughout the year affecting particularly children and elderly^[40].  

Environmental Stresses and Impacts on Socio-Economic Sectors 

Three main environmental stresses affect Myanmar: i) climate related hazards/extreme weather events;; ii) deforestation; and iv) diminishing water resources. The root causes of these environmental stresses include both anthropogenic and natural pressures (including climate variability). However, anthropogenic pressures directly and/or indirectly are associated with as well as aggravate natural pressures including climate change/variability. These environmental stresses affect biophysical processes that underpin a range of socio-economic sectors e.g. agriculture, water, energy, public health and natural resources. 

Climate hazards/extreme weather events 

Myanmar experiences the following climate hazards/extreme weather events: i) cyclones/ strong winds; ii) flood/storm surge; iii) intense rains; iii) extreme high temperatures; and v) drought. Drought is the most severe weather event in the country, followed by extreme day temperatures, cyclones/strong winds, intense rain and flood/storm surge. This is based on the overall impact of drought events on local communities, including health impacts, damage to property and assets as well as loss of income and livelihoods. See Table 2 below for a description of the highest impact sectors, areas and main impacts for climate hazards/extreme weather events in Myanmar.  

Table 2Description ofclimate hazards/extreme weather events that affect Myanmar including the highest impact sectors, areas and direct/indirect impacts.  

Deforestation 

Myanmar‟s forests have been affected by degradation, shifting cultivation, and conversion to commercial oil palm plantations (the latter is particularly relevant in the lowland forests of the Tanintharyi Region). Deforestation pressures include: i) fuelwood consumption (the principle source of energy); ii) unplanned and unrestricted agricultural expansion; iii) aquaculture (e.g. shrimp farming in the Delta region); iv) infrastructure development; and v) commercial clear cutting^[45]. Over the period 1989-1998, the annual deforestation rate in Myanmar has been estimated at 466,420 ha/annum. Furthermore, over the past two decades, Myanmar has lost >3% of its forest ecosystems^[46]. Deforestation, however, varies considerably among the regions. The central and/or more populated States and Regions show the highest losses of forest resources. The most notable being the mangrove forests in the Ayeyarwady Delta and the remaining dry forests at the northern edge of the Central Dry Zone^[47]. For example, it has been estimated that ~83% of mangroves in the Ayeyarwady Delta have been destroyed between 1924 and 1999^[48].  

The root cause of deforestation in Myanmar is over-exploitation of natural resources and unsustainable land management practices. For example, illegal and uncontrolled logging has caused substantial damage to Myanmar‟s forests, particularly in upland areas. Over-exploitation results in soil degradation and erosion. This is further aggravated by traditional farming practices used by local farmers e.g. slash-and-burn cultivation. Poor farming practices which deplete essential minerals from soils (e.g. potassium, nitrogen, and phosphorous) has reduced land productivity^[49]. Decreased productivity and limited vegetation cover has destabilised soils and caused erosion resulting in gullies, soil loss and decreased infiltration rates. In coastal areas large-scale destruction of coastal ecosystems (e.g. mangroves and other coastal ecosystems) has occurred as a result of increasing human populations, infrastructural developments (e.g. shrimp farming), over exploitation (timber and fuelwood), and pollution. 

Diminishing Water Resources  

The compounding effects of land degradation, overutilization and unfavourable agricultural practices in Myanmar are diminishing water supplies for domestic, agricultural and industrial use. Degradation of vegetation cover and poor land management around Inle Lake (Myanmar‟s largest Lake) for example has caused severe soil erosion and sedimentation resulting in the Lake becoming shallower. This has reduced the quantity of water available for use by local communities and jeopardised agricultural practices (floating gardens, fishing activities), tourism and recreational activities^[50]. The demand for water in Myanmar significantly increases during the hotter and drier parts of the year. It is expected that this demand will increase as socio-economic sectors expand, the climate gets hotter and drier and rainfall becomes more unpredictable. Under a changing climate, losses in agriculture productivity are expected as most of Myanmar‟s food production relies on rain-fed agriculture. Water related impacts are likely to undermine future development and economic growth in Myanmar. 

Myanmar’s Status under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and Institutional Arrangements for Climate Change Adaptation 

The Government of Myanmar signed the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change on 11 June 1992 and ratified the UNFCCC on 25 November 1994.  In order to fulfil its commitments and obligations as required by Articles 4.1 and 12.1 of the UNFCCC, apart from developing its NAPA, Myanmar is currently completing the preparation of its Initial National Communication (INC)^[51]for submission to the UNFCCC. As highlighted in Decision 2/CP.7 of the COP 7, through the INC process Myanmar is gradually building its institutional, scientific, technical, informational and human capacity at all levels. This will ensure the country‟s effective implementation of the Convention in a sustainable manner. The current INC project focuses on analysing levels of greenhouse gas emission, climate change scenarios, associated risks and vulnerabilities, potential measures and technology transfer for mitigating climate change and the degree of public awareness on climate change issues.  

The National Environmental Conservation Committee (NECC) (formerly known as the National Commission for Environmental Affairs [NCEA]) is the focal point for various international environmental conventions including the UNFCCC in Myanmar. The NCEA was established in 1990 to: i) advise the government on environmental policies; ii) act as a coordinating body for environmental affairs; and iii) promote environmentally sound sustainable development. The NCEA was reorganised into the Planning and Statistics Department, under the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry, with a new identity of the National Environmental Conservation 

Committee (NECC) in April 2011. The NECC (located within the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry) is responsible for guiding national activities to address climate changerelated problems. Furthermore, the NECC manages and coordinates all climate change-related activities in Myanmar including developing climate change related policies and strategies as well as programmes of action. 

Although the government has taken several steps towards sustainable development, conservation of natural resources and disaster risk reduction, such as drafting of Disaster Risk Reduction Law, there are still needs forlaws or regulatory mechanisms directly focussed on building the resilience and adaptive capacity of communities and ecosystems (and thus socio-economic sectors) to climate change impacts. There are some laws that directly relate to climate change mitigation, in particular, the emissions of Green House Gasses (GHG) and pollutants. Other laws that are in some way promoting adaptation to climate change include the Forest Law Act (1992), Wildlife Act (1994) and Protected Area and Forest Policy Statement (1995). As climate change impacts could severely undermine economic growth in Myanmar, the formulation and implementation of policies on climate change adaptation is vital for sustainable development.  

2.          Myanmar’s Framework for Climate Change Adaptation 

Observed Climate Variability/Change in Myanmar 

The observed climate variability and change in Myanmar over the last ~six decades includes the following: 

• a general increase in temperatures across the whole country (~0.08°C per decade), most notably in the northern and central regions;  
• a general increase in total rainfall over most regions,however, with notable decreases occurring in certain areas (e.g. Bago Region); 
• a decrease in the duration of the south-west monsoon season as a result of a late onset and early departure times; and 
• increases in the occurrence and severity of extreme weather events, including; cyclones/strong winds, flood/storm surges, intense rains, extreme high temperatures and drought. 

Observed Changes in Temperature (Annex 3) 

Over the last six decades (1951 to 2007), the temperature in Myanmar has increased on average by ~0.08°C per decade. This has been reflected by fewer cold days and more frequent hot days(Figure 7)^[52]. Despite overall trends of increasing temperatures, five Regions have experienced decreases. Appreciable decreases include Magway (-0.23°C per decade) and Bago (-0.16°C per decade). The highest warming (~0.32°C per decade) has been experienced in the Kayin State. From 1951 to 2000, ~15 heat waves occurred per year. The most extensive heat wave (covering up to 60% of the country) occurred in 1998 during a El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) year.  

Figure 7. Departure from the mean temperature over the period 1960 to 2005 (Heat Index-black line) indicating: 

i) more frequent hot years since 1976; and ii) a linear increase in temperature over the time period (Linear– Blueline)^[53].  

Observed Changes in Rainfall (Annex 3)

Over the last six decades (1951-2007), the rainfall in Myanmar has increased on average by 29 mm per decade. Rainfall trends have however been variable over the period. The majority of regions have experienced an increase in rainfall with the Upper Sagaing Region experiencing the greatest increases (~215 mm per decade). However, six regions experienced a decrease in annual rainfall. The greatest being the Bago Region (81 mm per decade). Changes in rainfall have also influenced the duration of the monsoon season. The southwest monsoon onset has become later in the year and withdrawal earlier in the year (see Figure 8). Over the period 1991-2004, 32 extreme rainfalls have occurred across 16 stations in the country. 

Figure 8. Departure from the mean normal monsoon duration (144 days) over the period 1950-2005 (Blue line) indicating a relative shorter annual monsoon season since 1975^[54].  

Observed Changes in Climate Related Hazards/Extreme Weather Events 

The observed changes in climate related hazards in Myanmar include: 

• An increase in the prevalence of drought events -Drought years with moderate intensity were frequent in the 1980s and the 1990s. Extended dry seasons and increased temperatures have however caused an increase in the prevalence of drought. Severe droughts have increased in frequency from 1990 to 2002. In 2010, severe drought diminished village water sources across the country and destroyed agricultural yields of peas, sugar cane, tomato, and rice. 
• An increase in intensity and frequency of cyclone/strong winds - In the past (before 2000), cyclones made landfall (i.e. centre of the storm moved across the coast) along Myanmar‟s coast once every three years. Since the turn of the century, cyclones have made landfall along Myanmar‟s coastline every year . From 1887 to 2005, 1,248 tropical storms formed in the Bay of Bengal. Eighty of these storms (6.4% of the total) reached Myanmar‟s coastline. Recent cyclones of note include Cyclone Mala (2006), Nargis (2008) and Giri (2010)^[55]. Cyclone Nargishit the coast in May 2008 and was the most devastating cyclone that Myanmar has ever experienced. The Ayeyarwady Delta and the eastern part of Yangon were most affected experiencing wind speeds >258 km/h. The main impacts included: i) extensive damage to mangroves, agricultural land, houses and utility infrastructures; ii) salt-water intrusion into agricultural lands and freshwater sources causing economic, social and environmental damage; iii) loss of livelihoods and homes (3.2 million people affected), including 138,373 deaths; and iv) damages of ~US $4.1 billion⁵⁸. Cyclone Girihit the coast in October 2010 resulting in a maximum storm surge of approximately 3.7 m and winds speeds in excess of 120 km/h. The Cyclone caused damage and loss of government buildings, households, schools and farm assets. The death toll was significantly less than that of Cyclone Nargis (45 people). However, the cyclone resulted in 70,000 people left without homes. 

• Rainfall variability including erratic and record-breaking intense rainfall events -Rainfall patterns in Myanmar have become unpredictable with regular reports of record-breaking rainfall: 
  • Over the period 1960-2009, shorter rainfall seasons in combination with erratic and intense rainfall resulted in numerous flooding events^[56].  
  • In 1999, heavy rainfall triggered a landslide along the western slope of the Tanintharyi Ranges, causing damages to several villages as a result of fallen material⁶⁰.  
  • In July 2009, 434 mm of rainfall fell in a single day in Launglon breaking the highest 24-hour rainfall record in the country. 
  • In August 2009, the Bago Division experienced its highest 24-hour rainfall in 45 years, resulting in severe flooding throughout the town.  
  • From July to October in 2011, heavy rain and flooding in the Ayeyarwady, Bago, Mon and Rakhine Regions/States resulted in losses of ~1.7 million tons of rice. 
  • An increase in the occurrence of flooding and storm surge - From 1910 to 2000 12 major floods occurred in the country^[57]. In recent years, however, there has been an increase in the occurrence of flooding events. Flooding disasters during the last decade include:  
    • In June 2001, a severe flash flood occurred in the Wuntwin Township in central Myanmar, which swept away a number of villages. 
    • In October 2006, two-week floods from the Zawgyi River caused extensive crop damage. 
    • In 2007, extensive record-breaking flooding resulted in ~809,284 ha of crop land inundated and >50% crops damaged. 
    • In June 2010, intense rains resulted in excessive sedimentation of paddy fields in the Rakhine State, which damaged rice seedlings and reduced harvests resulting in total damages of ~ US $1.64 million.  
    • An increase in extreme high temperatures - There has been a general increase in temperatures across Myanmar over the last six decades. This has resulted in an increase in extreme high temperature days and thus the prevalence of heat-related disorders. During summer 2010, 1,482 heat-related disorders were reported and 260 heat-related deaths occurred across Myanmar.  

Projected Climate Change and Vulnerability for Myanmar (2001-2100)^[58]

Climate change projections for Myanmar predict:  

• a general increase in temperature across the whole country, particularly from December – May with the Central and Northern regions experiencing the greatest increases;  
• a increase in clear sky days exacerbating drought periods;  
• an increase in rainfall variability during the rainy season including an increase across the whole country from March – November (particularly in Northern Myanmar), and decrease between December and February;  
• an increase in the risk of flooding resulting from a late onset and early withdrawal of monsoon events;  
• an increase in the occurrence and intensity of extreme weather events, including cyclones/strong winds, flood/storm surge, intense rains, extreme high temperatures and drought.  

Figure 5 and 6 below indicate temperature and rainfall changes over Myanmar for the next 80 years. Table  details climate change predictions over Myanmar for the time periods of 2001-2020, 2021-2050 and 2051-2100 (PRECIS model, see Annex 4 for a detailed description of results as well as the seven weather stations used to represent changes for seven physiogeographic regions in Myanmar).  

Figure 9. Predicted temperature trends for the seven physiographic regions in Myanmar (PRECIS model – Annex 4). 

Figure 10.Predicted rainfall trends for the seven physiographic regions in Myanmar (PRECIS model-Annex 4). 

Table 3.Detailed projected climate change trends across Myanmar for 2001-2100. Climate change predictions for annual rainfall indicate increases in annual average rainfall over the relevant time period (i.e. non-cumulative). For example an increase of ~228mm per annum over the time period 2001-2020 (see below) specifies that the annual average rainfall across 2001-2020 will increase by 228mm relative to the baseline modelled annual average rainfall (See Annex 4 for baseline modelled averages and relevant comparisons).  

increase (~0.7^ºC);  

• an increase in clear sky days in Northern and Central Myanmar exacerbating drought events;  
• highly variable rainfall changes throughout the country including large increases in the Northern Hilly region (~228 mm per annum) as well as decreases in the Rakhine Coastal, Yangon Deltaic, and Southern Coastal region (~58 mm per annum); and 
• an increase in floods and droughts resulting from variable rainfall conditions.  

    (1.2°C) experiencing the greatest        Deltaic regions (3.5°C); 

    increases;                                   a weakened monsoon climate 

• an increase in rainfall across the           supported by decreased cloud country with the Rakhine Coastal           coverage; region experiencing the greatest an increase in drought periods increases (~661 mm per annum) across most of Myanmar; and and the Eastern Hilly region       an increase in precipitation with experiencing the smallest       highest increases in the  increase (~36 mm per annum);          Rakhine Coastal region (~1582 
• periods of heavier rains; and    mm per annum) and smallest 
• longer dry spells.       increases in the Eastern Hilly region (~209 mm per annum). 

Note* ~228mm, 661mm, 1582 mm are standard deviation values from respective base years.

Climate Change Vulnerable Regions, Socio-Economic Sectors and Communities  

Myanmar is very vulnerable to climate change as a result of the following compounding factors^[59]:

• employment and the national income is dependent on climate-sensitive sectors such as agriculture, forestry and natural resources;  
• human populations and economic activities are concentrated in the coastal zone as well as in lowlying lands and are therefore exposed to long-term climatic impacts such as sea-level rise^[60]as well as an increase in cyclones and storm surge/flooding;  
• exposure to both geological and meteorological hazards (e.g. earthquakes, floods, cyclones and tsunamis) as a result of the country‟s southwest location within the Bay of Bengal as well as its long and low-lying coastal zone which stretches across the Arabian and Indo-Chineses Tectonic Plates; 
• high poverty levels which affect the capacity of the country to respond to climate change related impacts^[61]; and  
• limited technological capacity to prepare for the impacts of climate change or the consequences of climate change related events. 

Predicted climate change in Myanmar is expected to have negative impacts on the entire socioeconomic functioning of the country. However, certain regions/states (Error! Reference source not found.and Figure 11a) as well as socio-economic sectors (see Figure 11b) are most vulnerable to climate change impacts. Overall, the Coastal, Central Dry and Northern Hilly areas of the country are most vulnerable to climate change impacts (Figure 12a). The Public Health socio-economic sector is most at risk (Vulnerability Index [VI] = 3.4) followed by Biodiversity (VI=2.5), Water Resources (VI=2.4), Forest (VI=1.7), Coastal Zone (VI=1) and Agriculture (VI=0.9)^[62]. Considering population density, vulnerability is relatively high in Ayeyarwady and Yangon Regions followed by Mandalay, Mon and Bago Region/States (Figure 12b). 

Vulnerability varies significantly between different groups of people in Myanmar depending on their specific reliance on climate-sensitive income or livelihood sources. For example according to the PRA conducted in townships representative of the three agro-ecological zones (see Annex 2 PRA results)^[63]:  

• farmers in Myanmar will be greatly affected by an increase in intensity and severity of droughts and floods; 
• fisher folk will be affected by the impacts of extreme weather events (e.g. cyclones) on fish stocks; 
• retail businesses will suffer as consumer goods and food crops increase in price as productivity decreases;  
• poor households with limited access to health care will be increasingly vulnerable as the availability of work on farms decreases and the occurrence of infectious diseases increases; and 
• women and children will be particularly vulnerable as they have been found to be more susceptible to the economic/livelihood losses as well as risk of abuse/violence/exploitation after extreme weather events and poor households will struggle to send their children to school^[64].

Vulnerability is a set of prevailing or consequential conditions, which adversely affect a community's ability to prevent, mitigate, prepare for or respond to climate change. These long-term factors, weaknesses or constraints affect a household's, community's or society‟s ability (or inability) to absorb losses and to recover from the damage^[65]. The level of vulnerability of local communities in Myanmar is characterised by the above features, including geographical area, community group, livelihood type, and/or economic sector. The most vulnerable communities in Myanmar occur in all three agroecological zones namely the Hilly, Dry and Coastal Zones and are made up of mainly community group members situated in high risk areas (Table 4) and participating in vulnerable livelihood strategies e.g. farmers, woodcutters, fisher folk, grocery merchants, casual workers, homemakers, NTFPs collectors and retailers. Furthermore, women and children situated in high impact areas (vulnerable areas and regions/states e.g. Table 4) e.g. hilly, coastal, river/lake side areas, as well as urban areas will be negatively affected (see Chapter 3 for more details on vulnerable communities in Myanmar as well as Annex 2). 

Table 4 The areas and Regions/States that are most vulnerable to sea-level rise as well as climate changerelated increases in occurrence and severity of extreme weather events^[66][67] 

Figure 11. (a) Vulnerability of areas and Regions/States to climate change-related increases in intensity and severity of extreme weather events; and (b) the vulnerability of the main socio-economic sectors in Myanmar to extreme weather events as well as a range of other predicted climate change impacts^[68].

Figure 12. (a)Myanmar‟s overall climate change vulnerability index (taking into account areas and socioeconomic sectors most at risk); and (b) climate change vulnerability index for Myanmar considering population density.  

Climate Change Impacts on Socio-Economic Sectors 

Agriculture 

Agriculture in Myanmar is extremely vulnerable to climate change. The predicted rise in temperature in Myanmar is expected to have major negative impacts on agricultural production and food security⁷³. 

Higher temperatures will reduce yields of desirable crops (e.g. rice, wheat, maize, soybean and groundnut) and encourage weed and pest proliferation. Changes in precipitation patterns will increase the likelihood of short-term crop failures as well as long-term production declines. According to the IPCC 4th Assessment Report, climate change is expected to affect agriculture in South East Asia in several ways: i) irrigation systems will be affected by changes in rainfall and runoff, and subsequently, water quality and supply; ii) temperature increases of ~2-4°C will threaten agricultural productivity, stressing crops and reducing yields; iii) changes in temperature, moisture and carbon dioxide concentrations will negatively affect major cereal (e.g. rice, wheat, maize and millet) and tree crops; and iv) increases in rice and wheat production associated with CO₂fertilization will be offset by reductions in yields resulting from temperature and/or moisture changes. In particular, the increases in occurrence of droughts will result in crop failure in rain-fed agricultural areas and will increase the demand for irrigation. Conversely, increases in the occurrence of intense rains and resulting extreme floods will result in higher yield losses from crop damage^[69]. A rise of 1-2^ºC combined with lower solar radiation has the potential to cause rice spikelet sterility (i.e. infertile rice seeds). Rice becomes sterile if exposed to temperatures above 35^ºC for more than one hour during flowering and consequently produces no grain. This will limit rice production^[70]. Furthermore, higher temperatures will increase the incidence of crop diseases, insect pests and rodents^{[71],[72][73]}.

Forest

Climate change is likely to affect both the distribution and composition of forests in Myanmar. In certain areas, climate-induced succession will result in forest conversion to less productive grasslands^[75]. The predicted increase in intense rain events in combination with a reduction in vegetation cover will result in decreased rainfall infiltration. This will increase runoff, erosion and sedimentation of streams/rivers and lakes. The predicted increase in droughts and extreme day temperatures will increase evapotranspiration from the canopy of trees, causing increased moisture stress. This will in turn increase the vulnerability of forests to fires^[76]. Changing climates will also favour the encroachment of invasive plant/animal species including insect pests. Furthermore, structural and functional changes of Myanmar‟s forests will have a cyclical impact on the climate system through effects on biogeochemical cycles e.g. nitrogen and carbon^[77],[78].

Public Health

Increasing temperatures and erratic precipitation patterns will create favourable conditions for the spread of infectious diseases. Additional effects of increasing temperatures on human health, including inter aliaheat stress, heat exhaustion and dehydration. Additionally, extreme temperatures will aggravate the effects of individuals suffering with cardio-respiratory diseases. Air pollution-related health problems will also be affected as air pollution levels increase from a combination of high emissions and unfavourable weather^[79]. Higher temperatures will also reduce the development time for pathogens and thereby increase transmission rates e.g. mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria and dengue will increase^[80]. Furthermore, pathogen distribution will increase in range as vectors harbouring parasites infest highland areas (e.g. Shan State) which at present are too cold for vector insects. Fluctuating insect, bat and rodent populations in response to climatic conditions are predicted to have negative effects on the spread of a range of diseases^[81],[82].  

The greatest concern at present regarding climate change impacts on human health is related to freshwater resources^[83]. Increases in intense rain events and tropical storms will lead to increases in flooding events and storm surges. This will affect freshwater sources as they become contaminated by rising flood water levels. Furthermore, rising sea-levels will result in fresh groundwater resources being displaced with salt water. An increase in non-potable fresh water sources will result in communities without safe drinking water and increasing dehydration risks, further exacerbated by diarrheal diseases. In addition, increases in occurrence and severity of droughts will decrease water availability and water quality^[84]. The impacts of extreme weather events on the agriculture and fisheries sectors will also have knock-on effects on food security increasing malnutrition in the country.  

Water resources

Climate change-induced changes to hydrological cycles will deteriorate water quality, quantity, and accessibility. Several sections of the hydrological cycle are vulnerable to climate change. The rate of snow and glacial melt is expected to increase resulting in changing river flows and unpredictable flooding events. The late onset and early withdrawal of the monsoon period will result in large quantities of rain falling over short periods. This will result in flooding, contamination of water resources, erosion and limited replenishment of waterways. Furthermore, changes in river flow and discharge will increase the risk of flash floods as well as decrease ground water recharge. Vast areas of lowland regions will be regularly inundated as a result of flooding events. Conversely, increases in drought events will increase utilisation pressures on ground water for expanding irrigated agriculture. Rising sea-levels, however, will lead to salt-water intrusion into groundwater supplies particularly as existing water levels decrease. Ground water supplies will be particularly vulnerable to saline intrusion during the dry season as a result of low water volumes in river systems. Furthermore, regardless of the quantity of water available increased temperatures from climate change will increase evaporation rates, raising the concentration of dissolved salts in the water often deeming it unsuitable for drinking purposes^[85].  

Coastal Zone  

Myanmar is particularly vulnerable to rising sea-levels as a result of its highly populated, low-lying coastline. An increase in sea-level will provide a higher base for storm surges and other extreme climate events. Therefore, sea-level rise and associated impacts will threaten coastal ecosystems, agricultural land and infrastructure (roads, property, and businesses). Certain low-lying coastal zones will be at risk of complete inundation resulting in a loss of agricultural and residential land. The extent of inundation will be largely determined by the slope of the land. For example, the low-lying Ayeyarwady Delta is particular at risk as even a small rise in sea-level will lead to a large portion of the Delta being inundated. Rising sea-levels will also threaten water tables as saline water enters into freshwater ground water supplies.  

Biodiversity

The affects of climate change on biodiversity are already evident in Myanmar. For example, shifts in the range as well as migration patterns of certain species of insects, marine/terrestrial mammals, birds and fish of have been observed^[86]. Furthermore, there have been notable changes in the flowering and fruiting seasons/times of certain plant species. Changes in temperature and precipitation levels, as well as extreme climate events (drought and floods) have caused forest die back, conversion of forests to grasslands/steppes/deserts as well as increased the spread of invasive species/insect pests. Future climate change will exacerbate these current impacts with increases in extreme weather events such as cyclones, droughts, floods and fires negatively impacting ecosystem functioning as well as species compositions, distributions and richness. An increase in extreme heat days and drought periods, as well as rising sea-levels, will change the chemical composition of water resources. This is likely to impact freshwater biodiversity. Similarly, increasing sea temperatures and changes to seawater chemical composition will affect marine biodiversity, particularly coral reef ecosystems. Impacts will result in cascading effects whereby failure or changes in certain species or functions within an ecosystem will have knock-on effects on other species and functions. This has the potential to result in large-scale loss in biodiversity and related ecosystem services. For example, increases in the frequency of El Niño events will lead to a decrease in plankton biomass resulting in knock-on effects such as a reduction in the abundance of fish larvae^[87]. This in turn will cause a decline in adult fish stocks and consequential negative impacts on the fishing industry. 

Energy, Transport and Industry

The hydropower potential of many of Myanmar‟s rivers will be significantly affected by climate change impacts such as intense rainfall events, erratic rainfall as well as increases in the occurrence and severity of droughts. Intense rains will trigger large-scale erosion resulting in siltation and sedimentation of waterways and dams. This will reduce the water-storage capacity of dams and cause structural damages, increased maintenance costs as well as increased operational costs^[88]. Transport in Myanmar will also be impacted. An increase in extreme weather events will cause significant damages to existing transport infrastructure as well as increase maintenance costs. For example, Cyclone Nargis resulted in a loss of ~US$ 36 million on road damages/losses alone. Increasing sea-level will also impact coastal transport infrastructure, as roads in the path of rising water levels will be vulnerable to collapse as a result of erosion. Industry will also be affected. For example, industry was one of the sectors most affected by Cyclone Nargis with estimated damage/loss costs of ~US$ 1,814 million. Furthermore, climate extremes will result in considerable socio-economic knock-on effects, such as a drop in employment and industrial productivity which will impact food security and the country‟s economy. 

Myanmar NAPA Framework 

NAPA Goal and Objectives  

The overarching goalof the NAPA is to identify and communicatepriority activities (referred to as 

Priority Adaptation Projects) to address Myanmar‟s immediate and urgent adaptation needs for implementation in Myanmarthat will assist the country adapt to climate change impactsby building/enhancing resilienceof vulnerable communities.  

The objectivesof the NAPA are to: i) communicate observed and projected climate change impacts in Myanmar; ii) prioritise adaptation projectsfor eight main sectors/themes, namely Agriculture, Early Warning Systems, Forest, Public Health, Water Resources, Coastal Zone, Energy and Industry, and Biodiversity; iii) assist Myanmar in achieving its national development goals and strategies, including the Myanmar Agenda 21, the National Sustainable Development Strategy (2009), and the Millennium Development Goals; and iv) communicate NAPA Priority Adaptation Projectsfor implementation in Myanmarfor addressing immediate climate change adaptation needs and thereby building the climate change resilience of vulnerable communities. 

Thirty two Priority Adaptation Projects (priority activities) have been identifiedfor effective climate change adaptation in Myanmar for eight main sectors/themes (i.e. four Project Options per sector/theme), namely: i) Agriculture; ii) Early Warning Systems; iii) Forest; iv) Public Health; v) Water Resources; vi) Coastal Zone; vii) Energy, and Industry; and viii) Biodiversity (see Chapter 5 and Annex 1). Sectors in which Priority Adaptation Projects should be implemented first include: 1) Agriculture, Early Warning Systems and Forest(First Priority Level Sectors) (Table 3). This is followed by: 2): Public Health and Water Resources (Second Priority Level Sectors); 3) Coastal Zone (Third Priority Level Sector); and 4): Energy and Industry, and Biodiversity (Fourth Priority Level Sectors). Although, project profiles are presented separately for each Priority Adaptation Project, it is important to note that project ideas/activities/elements can be blended across projects and sectors when designing final project concepts for implementation in the country.  

Table 3. First Priority Level Sector’s top Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation in Myanmar(Please see Chapter 5 and Annex 1 for the top 32 Priority Adaptation Projects for eight socio-economic sectors).  

To achieve the above objectives and thus main goal of the NAPA i.e. to identify and communicate Priority Adaptation Projects, the Myanmar NAPA preparation process followed the guidelines outlined by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Least Developed Countries (LDC) Expert Group^[89],[90]. This was achieved using seven main steps (Table 4).  

Table 4. The seven main steps of the Myanmar NAPA preparation process.  

The following were considered when prioritising and designing the NAPA Priority Adaptation Projects during steps 5, 6 and 7 above: 

• scientific and participatory/traditional approaches for assessing climate change vulnerability and adaptation needs; and 
• local community empowerment for identifying their adaptation needs through Participatory Rural Appraisals.  

Furthermore, NAPA adaptation projects were developed based on the followingstrategiesfor the country:  

• Strategy 1:Create adaptive capacities for responding to climate change impacts focussed on preparedness, monitoring, pilot projects and restoration of natural capital. 
• Strategy 2:Support the country‟s aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through increasing carbon sinks and utilising sustainable development practices e.g. fuel, electricity, transport, efficiency; industrial efficiency as well as sustainable agriculture and forestry that reduces emissions and increases absorption.  
• Strategy 3:Integrate climate change management i.e. knowledge management, database and tools, management preparedness and multilateral participation into national, regional and local level policies and plans.  
• Strategy 4:Increase climate change research including assessing future climate risks and current vulnerability.  
• Strategy 5:Mainstream climate change adaptation into policy, planning and relevant projects to ensure scaling up of climate change adaptation across the country at national, regional and local levels.  

Please see Chapter 4 for more details on the criteria used to select Priority Adaptation Projects, Chapter 6 for a full detailed description of the NAPA preparation process including institutional arrangements that supported and coordinated the NAPA preparation process, and Annex 2 for a detailed description of the Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) conducted during the NAPA preparation process. 

Myanmar’s development goals/strategies, existing institutional frameworks and multi/bi-lateral treaties/agreements  

The Government of Myanmar has taken several steps to address the impact of environmental stresses on socio-economic sectors. These include policies, strategies, plans and programmes that focus on i) sustainable development; ii) sustainable utilisation of natural resources; iii) forest conservation; iv) disaster risk reduction; and v) environmental protection. Almost all the ministries have laid out policies, objectives and strategies for developing their respective socio-economic sectors. These strategies are indirectly related to climate change adaptation as they encourage sustainable development of socio-economic sectors and this “sustainable aspect” overlaps in general with adaptation strategies for reducing climate change impacts.  

It is important that Myanmar‟s existing goals, strategies, institutions, policies, plans and treaties/agreements form the framework to support NAPA Priority Projects. Therefore, potential synergies between identified NAPA Project Options and the national development framework (e.g. strategies, institutions, policies, plans and treaties/agreements) was included as a selection criteria when prioritising projects for implementation. For example, the following overarching development goals and strategies were considered when prioritising and designing NAPA Priority Adaptation Projects:  

• Myanmar’s market-orientated policy scheme (1988) which indicates that Myanmar‟s ultimate goal is to become a peaceful, modern and developed country^[91]. There are three national development plans to achieve this goal, namely; i) the Development of Border Area; ii) the Plan for 24 Special Development Zones; and iii) the Integrated Rural Development Plan. The policy specifies twelve objectives including four political, four economic^[92], and four social objectives^[93]. A series of four/five year short-term plans were implemented from 1992 to 2011 to enhance economic development in Myanmar. These plans proved to be effective as represented by a consistent GDP annual growth in the country during the time^[94]. 
• Myanmar Agenda 21 (1997) whichwas formulated by the National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) (now called the National Environmental Conservation Committee [NECC]) as an expression of political commitment by government to achieve sustainable development. Myanmar Agenda 21 serves as a framework to integrate environmental considerations into future national development plans as well as sectoral development programmes.  
• The National Sustainable Development Strategy (NSDS)(2009)which further developed the principles identified in the Myanmar Agenda 21. NSDS comprehensively incorporates environmental considerations into social and economic development to achieve the overarching goal of sustainable development. The document identifies three main goals for the country^[95]: i) Sustainable Management of Natural Resources; ii) Integrated Economic Development; and iii) Sustainable Social Development.  
• The Millennium Development Goals (MDG) (2000-2015) whichMyanmar is striving to achieve by 2015. These include: i) eradicate extreme poverty and hunger; ii) achieve universal primary education; iii) promote gender equality and empowerment; iv) reduce child mortality; v) reduce maternal mortality; vi) combat HIV/AIDS malaria and other diseases; vii) ensure environmental sustainability; and viii) develop a global partnership for development.  

The following institutional framework already existing in the country was considered when prioritising and designing NAPA Adaptation Projects:  

• The National Commission for Environmental Affairs (NCEA) whichwas established in 1990 to: i) advise the government on environmental policies; ii) act as a coordinating body for environmental affairs; and iii) promote environmentally sound sustainable development. The NCEA was reorganized into the Planning and Statistics Department, under the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry, with a new identity of the National Environmental 

Conservation Committee (NECC) in April 2011. The NECC (located within the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry) is responsible for guiding national activities to address climate change-related problems. Furthermore, the NECC manages and coordinates all climate change-related activities in Myanmar including developing climate change related policies and strategies as well as programmes of action. 

• The Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry (formerly the Ministry of Forestry) which was established to ensure that environmental affairs are considered in development plans. The Ministry is responsible for assessing the environmental impact of national development projects. 
• The ASEAN Committee on Disaster Management (ACDM)which consists of the heads of the national agencies that are responsible for disaster management in ASEAN member countries (including Myanmar). The ADCM is responsible for coordinating and implementing regional disaster management activities within member countries.  
• The National Disaster Preparedness Central Committee (NDPCC)which was established in 2005 to prevent/mitigate the loss of human lives, settlement and property to disaster events. In accordance with guidance of the NDPCC, Government departments are currently (2012) preparing Natural Disaster Management Plans. Certain departments have already completed their respective Plans e.g. Health and Agriculture Planning Department.  

The following supporting policy and planning framework was considered when prioritising and designing NAPA adaptation projects:  

• The National Environment Policy whichwas adopted by the Government in 1994 to establish sound environmental policies for regulating the utilisation of water, land, forests, mineral, marine, and other natural resources. The overarching objective of the policy is to achieve harmony and balance between Myanmar‟s people, cultural heritage, environment, and natural resources. The policy works towards sustainable development in Myanmar by prioritizing environmental protection within economic development. One of the basic principles under the policy focuses on climate change. This section indicates that economic sectors should be climate-adaptive and resilient to secure national economic growth. The policy forms the basis for developing environmental strategies, programmes and plans which provide sound legislative basis to ensure that environmental concerns are integrated into development planning to support sustainable development. 
• The Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction (MAPDRR)(2009-2015)which aims to improve disaster management in Myanmar e.g. protect lives, livelihoods, and secure development. The MAPDRR has five objectives: i) build a more resilient and safer community through the conceptualization, development and implementation of appropriate disaster risk reduction programmes and culture of safety; ii) provide a framework for implementing Myanmar‟s DRR commitments at the global and regional levels, under Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) and ASEAN Agreement on Disaster Management and Emergency Response (AADMER); iii) provide a mechanism where the disaster risk reduction initiatives of all Government Ministries and Departments, supported by UN organizations and other stakeholders, can be coordinated and monitored; iv) provide a conducive environment for mainstreaming DRR into development plans, and programs at the National, State, Region, Township, and Village Tract levels; and v) support mutually beneficial partnerships between the Myanmar Government and their development cooperation partners in DRR programmes. The MAPDRR is composed of seven components, which align with the Hyogo Framework for Action (see below). The seven components are: i) policy, institutional arrangements and further institutional development; ii)hazard, vulnerability and risk assessment; iii)Multi-hazard Early Warning Systems; iv) preparedness and response programs at national, State/Region, District & Township levels; v)mainstreaming of DRR into Development; vi) community-based disaster preparedness and risk reduction; and vii)public awareness, education and training.  
• The Myanmar Action Plan on Disaster Risk Reduction, Preparedness, Relief and 

Rehabilitation(also known as „Master Plan for Disaster Preparedness‟) which is an updated version of the above MAPDRR plan. This updated plan has been approved and launched on 4 June 2012 and details the foundations for disaster management institutional arrangements in Myanmar.  

The following main treaties/agreements were considered when prioritising NAPA Adaptation Projects 

(see Annex 5 for a comprehensive list of Myanmar‟s environmental national and multilateral treaties/agreements): 

• United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC - 1992) whichis an international environmentaltreatyestablished in 1992 at the Earth Summitin Rio de Janeiro.The objective of the UNFCCC is to stabilise greenhouse gas concentrations at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system. The UNFCCC is not legally binding and it has no enforcement mechanisms. It instead provides updates (or „protocols‟) which set mandatory emission limits. 
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD - 1994) whichis the first global agreement on conservation and the sustainable use of biodiversity. Myanmar succeeded in maintaining the agreement as the government produced all three of the required national biodiversity reports. The success of the agreement is evident in the significant protected area expansion that occurred in the country. By 2009, ~4.35% of the required 5% had been achieved^[96]. Furthermore, the NCEA developed the National Biodiversity Strategy Action Plan (NBSAP). This plan integrated conservation and sustainable use of biological resources into national decision-making while mainstreaming relevant issues across all sectors of the national economy and policy-making framework. 
• The Kyoto Protocol (1997) which was initially adopted in 1997 as a protocol within the UNFCCC. Under the Kyoto Protocol, 37 countries committed themselves to reducinggreenhouse gas(GHG) emissions. Countries collectively agreed to reduce GHG emissions for the period 2008-2012. The protocol incorporates some flexible mechanisms,such as emissions trading,the clean development mechanism(CDM) and joint implementationto allow countriesto realistically meet GHG emission limitations. 
• United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD –1997) which protects the Central Dry Zone from deforestation and desertification. The Dry Zone Greening Department (a governmental department created to combat desertification in the Dry Zone) undertakes re/afforestation projects in the Central Dry Zone to develop water resources, develop/encourage fuel-wood substitutes, and to conserve and improve the residual natural forests.  
• The Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA) which is a plan that describes the work required from different sectors/actors to reduce disaster losses. The goal of the HFA is to reduce disasterinduced losses of lives and social, economic, and environmental assets by 2015 by building the resilience of communities and nations to disasters. The framework outlines five priority actions: i) ensure that disaster risk reduction is a national and a local priority with a strong institutional basis for implementation; ii) Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning; iii) use knowledge, innovation and education to build a culture of safety and resilience at all levels; iv) reduce the underlying risk factors; and v) strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels. 
• The ASEAN Multi-Sectoral Framework on Climate Change: Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry towards Food Security (AFCC) whichis an integrated framework (finalised in 2009) to facilitate ASEAN to respond to climate change threats and food security. The AFCC has a crosssectoral approach for effective policy-making and implementation. It provides an arena for ASEAN to coordinate the support it receives. The AFCC aims to minimise the risk and impacts of climate change to contribute to food security through sustainable, efficient and effective use of land, forest, and water resources. To achieve this, the AFCC has two major objectives: i) coordination on the development of adaptation and mitigation strategies; and ii) cooperation on the implementation of integrated adaptation and mitigation measures^[97]. 

Although the government has taken several steps towards sustainable development, conservation of natural resources and disaster risk reduction, such as drafting of Disaster Risk Reduction Law, there are still needs for laws or regulatory mechanisms directly focussed on building the resilience of communities and ecosystems (and thus socio-economic sectors) to climate change impacts. There are some laws that directly relate to climate change mitigation, in particular, the emissions of Green House Gasses (GHG) and pollutants. Furthermore, a new Disaster Management Law is at present being prepared. Other laws that are in some way promoting adaptation to climate change include the Forest Law Act (1992), Wildlife Act (1994) and Protected Area and Forest Policy Statement (1995). As climate change impacts could severely undermine economic growth in Myanmar, the formulation and implementation of policies on climate change adaptation is vital for sustainable development.  

Potential Barriers to NAPA Implementation 

A number of barriers may affect the implementation of NAPA Priority Adaptation Projects at national, provincial and local levels. These include: 

• limited technical capacity of local and national stakeholders for planning (including cross-sectoral planning) and implementing climate change adaptation;  
• limited understanding of the political scope needed for using climate change adaptation to reduce the vulnerability of communities and a wide-range of sectors to climate change; 
• limited availability of locally relevant, usable climate information for the end users;
• insufficient evidence and demonstration of climate change adaptation benefits in the country to influence policy- and decision-making; 
• limited policy, strategy and legislative environment for providing incentives for adapting communities to climate change;  
• limited community awareness and understanding regarding climate change impacts and adaptation;  
• poor understanding of climate change adaptation benefits as a result of limited on-the-ground adaptation intervention demonstrations to enhance resilience to climate change - without access to replicable demonstrations, government decision-makers and resource users do not have the tools and knowledge necessary to decrease climate change vulnerability;  
• limited financial resources to adapt to climate change and climate variability;  
• limited effective assessment of climate change impacts in Myanmar, which in turn limits the planning of effective adaptation activities; and  
• limited secure land tenure particularly for rural communities.  

Measures to Address Barriers to NAPA Implementation 

A number of measures can be implemented to address barriers to NAPA implementation presented above. These measures should be included when designing projects to address NAPA Priority Adaptation Projects. These include: 

• improving national institutional capacity to undertaking effective adaptation planning;  
• improving local institutional capacity including promoting decentralised government structures; 
• improving local community capacity to ensure a bottom-up approach to adaptation planning;  
• awareness raising activities in vulnerable communities to improve their knowledge on climate change and adaptation; 
• promoting community-based natural resource management, improved water management and low-water usage agriculture within local communities;  
• improving inter-ministerial coordination to promote management of environmental and climate change adaptation related matters between all relevant ministries; 
• improving inter-ministerial communication by establishing a data management network to ensure duplication of effort is avoided and appropriate adaptation approaches are integrated across ministries; 
• improving adaptation knowledge and awareness by facilitating information gathering and exchange structures; 
• developing best practice guidelines for ecosystem adaptation interventions and policies that integrate climate change adaptation; 
• improving public awareness of climate change and adaptation by integrating adaptation into national curricula and publicity campaigns in national and local media;  
• facilitating the establishment of climate early warning systems by providing training to staff at the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology as well as early warning user-agencies and grass root communities; 
• promoting decentralisation and devolution for securing community land tenure and promoting ownership; and 
• facilitating research (including long-term research) on the impacts of climate change, costs and benefits of adaptation and appropriate adaptation measures for addressing these impacts.  

3.          Identification of Adaptation Needs and Project Options  

Increasing the climate change resilience of vulnerable communities and socioeconomic sectors  

This section of the NAPA details past and current mechanisms/practices used by communities and socio-economic sectors for managing climate change/climate variability and extreme weather events. Adaptation needs identified by vulnerable communities during the PRA are highlighted (see Annex 2 for more details) and described for eight socio-economic sectors/themes: i) Agriculture; ii) Early Warning Systems; iii) Forest; iv) Public health; v) Water Resources; vi) Coastal zone; vii) Energy and Industry; and viii) Biodiversity.  

Participants in the PRA were chosen to represent the most climate change vulnerable communities in Myanmar. Participants were selected by Integrated Community Development Project (ICDP) Project Township Managers according to specific criteria stipulated by the NAPA team. Selection criteria were based on climate change projections (including hazard levels) for Myanmar as well as characteristics of vulnerable regions, socio-economic sectors and communities described in Chapter 2, including i) geographic areas; ii) gender; and iii) livelihood types. This ensured equal representation of a balance of vulnerable groups while addressing the most marginalised/defenceless communities. 

Townships were selected to represent the most vulnerable regions in Myanmar‟s three agro-ecological zones: i) Hilly Zone represented by the Nyaungshwe Township in the Shan State; ii) Dry Zone represented by the Kyaukpadaung Township in the Mandalay Region; and iii) Coastal Zone represented by the Bogale Township in the Ayeyarwady Region. Participants at a township level included personnel from line departments, local authorities and development agencies (mainly UNDP) involved with food security, sustainable development and environmental work. These included experts/specialists working in the following sectors/themes: i) public health; ii) education; iii) transport; iv) forestry; v) fisheries; vi) alternative livelihoods; vii) disaster risk reduction; viii) forestry, ix) water resources; x) sanitation/hygiene; and xi) agriculture. Participants at a village level included community group members representing vulnerable livelihood strategies (e.g. farmers, wood cutters, charcoal bakers, fisher folk, grocery merchants, livestock keepers, farmer workers, fishery/aquaculture workers, casual workers, housewives, collectors and retailers of NTFPs) and geographic areas (e.g. hilly, coastal, river/lake side areas and urban). Six village communities were identified in each township, according to the following vulnerable geographic and livelihood characteristics (Table 5). 

Table 5. Characteristics of vulnerable areas and livelihoods that were used to select participants to represent vulnerable communities within Myanmar‟s three agro-ecological zones.  

Based on adaptation needs identified by vulnerable communities during the PRA, eight to ten Adaptation Project Options were identified and ranked for potential implementation in Myanmar. Adaptation Project Options aim to address the gaps in current practices as well as fulfil the adaptation needs indicated by local communities. The top four Adaptation Projects per sector are considered Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation in the country. Details for Priority Adaptation Projects as well as one to two page project profiles are presented in Chapter 5 and Annex 1 respectively.  

Please see Chapter 4 for more details on the criteria used to select Priority Adaptation Projects, Chapter 6 for a full detailed description of the NAPA preparation process including institutional arrangements that supported and coordinated the NAPA preparation process, and Annex 2 for a detailed description of the Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) conducted during the NAPA preparation process.

Agriculture 

The following measures have been implemented in Myanmar to improve agricultural productivity and ensure food security: 

• The Government implemented 129 irrigation projectsbetween 1988 and 2002. This includes the Thaphanseik dam, which is the largest dam in Southeast Asia.  
• The International Development Enterprise (IDE) project: i) developed small-plot water technologies e.g. micro-irrigation facilities(treadle pumps and engines); and ii) created linkages between local farmers and fruit and vegetable markets. This has enabled certain farmers in Myanmar to move from subsistence rain-fed farming to small-scale commercial (and thus income-generating) farming. 
• In the Central Dry Zone,varieties of crops are cultivated using crop intensification farming systems. This includes: i) mix/multiple cropping systems i.e. two or more crops in the same field to improve soil fertility, increase crop yield and act as insurance against crop failure; and ii) sequence cropping systems i.e. two or more crops in a time sequence in a year to reduce intercrop competition.  
• In the Ayeyarwaddy Delta, a range of rice varieties have been introduced for cultivation including traditional quality, salt-tolerant, deep-water, waterlogged and submerged rice varieties e.g. Pawsan Hmway, Pawsan Baygyar and Pharpon Pawsan rice varieties are highly valued and cover ~20% of the Delta region. 

Based on the adaptation needs identified by vulnerable communities during the PRA (see Annex 2 for a detailed list of these adaptation needs), the following is a summary of the adaptation options that should be considered for effective adaptation in the agriculture sector: 

• planning for climate change/variability to reduce the impacts of drought, heat stress and other climate extremes on crop yields;  
• agronomic managementpractices to conserve soil and water e.g. mulching, cover crops, conservation tillage, integrated nutrient management and contour terraces;  
• sustainable water use and management to increase/maintain availability of water supplies for drinking and irrigation; 
• sustainable crop management including climate-resilient and early maturing varieties and conservation of traditional varietiesto increase/maintain crop production under a changing climate;  
• sustainable climate-resilient mixed farming systems (including floating farmlands), thatintegrate livestock (cattle, goats, pigs, ducks and fish) and crops, as well as agroforestry systems that mix crops, trees (e.g. tamarind, mango, neem, lead tree and cutch tree) and livestock; and
• restoration of abandoned agricultural fields with perennial and species with soil binding root systems in order to conserve soil, increase water infiltration and reverse land degradation/aridification. 

The above adaptation options have been incorporated into ten Adaptation Project Options for potential implementation in Myanmar (Table 6). Adaptation Project Options have been ranked in importance (1 = highest priority, 10 = lowest priority) for reducing the vulnerability of the agriculture sector and related communities to climate change impacts. Please see the methods and criteria used for ranking Adaptation Project Options in Chapter 4 and 6.  

Table 6. Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the Agriculture Sector to climate change impacts. 

Early Warning Systems 

The following measures have been implemented in Myanmar to ensure effective early warning for severe weather events:  

• The Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH)collects, analyses and archives meteorological, hydrological and seismological related data to inform early warnings for extreme weather events. This is achieved using 161 manual meteorological observation stations across the country in combination with satellite-based estimation techniques and forecast information received from Global Producing Centres. Early warnings and weather related bulletins are disseminated using television and radio. 
• The Relief and Resettlement Department (RRD) conducts disaster response and recovery activities including training and awareness raising campaigns at grass-root, regional and national levels.  
• The RRD and DMH collaborate to disseminate early warnings to local authorities who transfer warnings to district and grass-root levels. 
• Regional Integrated Multi-hazard Early Warning Systems (RIMES)are conducting community-based pilot programmesfor training local communities to prepare for and respond to early warnings received from DMH and RRD. 
• The United Nations Development Programme developedmulti-hazard risk assessments for Ayeyarwady, Bago, Yangon and Rakhine Regions/States in 2011.

Myanmar has limited technology for remotely and automatically forecasting extreme weather events. This reduces the time available for local communities to take necessary actions and preparations relative to Early Warning Systems in other more developed countries. However, even in cases when technology has been effective in providing sufficient lead-time for local communities to prepare, lives have still been lost and property damaged. This is as a result of three main reasons: i) warnings do not reach communities in remote areas; ii) communities do not know how to respond; iii) communities do not understand or cannot interpret the warning received. For example during Cyclone Nargis communities in the Ayeyarwady Delta refused to respond to warnings as they did not understand/realise the magnitude of the threat. Based on the adaptation needs identified by vulnerable communities during the PRA (see Annex 2 for a detailed list of these adaptation needs), the following is a summary of the adaptation options that should be considered for establishing effective early warning systems for reducing vulnerability to climate change-induced extreme weather events: 

• improved sensor technology including real-time observation stations for monitoring and predicting/detecting extreme weather events, including drought monitoring systems; 
• strengthened capacity for analysing real-time, historical and satellite meteorological data to assist with monitoring and predicting extreme weather events;  
• improved extreme weather warning dissemination/interpretationfor communicating warnings to communities to ensure adequate time for response and preparation; 
• strengthened capacity of local level authorities (e.g. at a township level) for understanding, interpreting and responding to warnings received as well as communicating early warnings to grass root communities;  
• education and awareness raising at grass roots levels (e.g. community-based early warning systems and adapting primary school curriculum to include disaster risk reduction);  
• climate-proof infrastructure such as i) weather-proof buildings (particularly schools and hospitals); ii) climate-resilient public shelters, iii) seawalls and drainage canals; iv) large-scale mangroves ecosystem shelter belts;
• distribution of life jackets and other equipment/gear for ensuring safety during flooding and storm surges.  

The above adaptation options have been incorporated into nine Adaptation Project Options for potential implementation in Myanmar (Table 7). Adaptation Project Options have been ranked in importance (1 = highest priority, 9= lowest priority) for reducing the vulnerability of the communities to climate change-induced extreme weather events. Please see the methods and criteria used for ranking Adaptation Project Options in Chapter 4 and 6. 

Table 7. Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of socio-economic sectors and communities to climate change impacts.

Forestry 

The following measures have been implemented in Myanmar to ensure sustainable and communitybased forestry in the country:  

• A Thirty year Forest Action Plan has been developedon disaster risk reduction, sustainable forest management including natural, plantation and community forests. 
• A people centred Community Forestry approach (Community Forestry Instruction 1995) is being usedin several regions including the Ayeyarwady Delta, Yangon Deltaic region and Central Dry Zone. This approach aims to promote sustainable management of natural forests through decentralisation to established Forest User Groups (~30-year lease).  
• Reforestation efforts are being undertaken in the Ayeyarwady Delta and Yangon Deltaic region. This includes the establishment of ~65,108 ha of plantation forests comprising mangrove and other forestry species.  
• TheIntegrated Mangrove Rehabilitation and Management Project (Japan International Cooperation Agency [JICA] 2007-2013) is being implemented to ensure sustainable management of mangrove ecosystems and poverty alleviation in the Ayeyarwady Delta. 
• Awareness raisingis being conducted using pamphlets and posters distributed throughout the Ayeyarwady Delta and Yangon Deltaic regions.  

One of the most important aspects for increasing the adaptive capacity of the forest sector to climate change is using a community approach. Based on the adaptation needs identified by vulnerable communities during the PRA (see Annex 2 for a detailed list of these adaptation needs), the following is a summary of the adaptation options that should be considered for effective adaptation in the forest sector. 

• climate-resilient forest speciesfor reforestation and afforestation programs throughout Myanmar to increase forest regeneration and recovery under future climate conditions; 
• intensifiedmangrove reforestation in coastal zones for coastal buffering against cyclones, flooding and storm surges; 
• restoration of degraded forestareas using multi-use forest species(e.g. mango, tamarind, lead tree and cutch trees) for increasing community safety-nets and diversifying livelihoods; 
• implementingfire protection and fire fighting measures (e.g. fire breaks) within forest ecosystems;  
• increased public participationincluding the devolution of forestry management and rights to lower governmental levels as well as to local communities;  
• public awareness(using signboards; radio and television) and education on the effects of climate change on forest ecosystems and economic activities;  
• capacity building for improved community forestry implementation including training on seed collection, cleaning, storage, sowing, propagation and planting; and 
• improved efficiency of fuelwood use by adopting technologies such as energy efficient stoves and introducing sustainable woodlots.  

The above adaptation options have been incorporated into 11 Adaptation Project Options for potential implementation in Myanmar (Table 8). Adaptation Project Options have been ranked in importance (1 = highest priority, 11 = lowest priority) for reducing the vulnerability of the forest sector and related communities to climate change impacts. Please see the methods and criteria used for ranking Adaptation Project Options in Chapter 4 and 6. 

Table 8. Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the Forest Sector to climate change impacts.  

Public Health 

The following measures have been implemented in Myanmar to reduce health risks to local communities associated with climate variability: 

• TheDepartment of Healthraises awareness using newspapers, TV Spot and posters on the necessary precautions (appropriate behaviour changes) vulnerable communities should take to prevent climate-related health risks such as heat-related disorders and the spread of water-borne diseases. Campaigns mainly target communities in the Central Dry Zone and flood risk areas of the country. 
• Twenty national hospitals and 32 state and regional hospitals exist in Myanmar. These hospitals have been supported by the World Health Organisation (WHO) since 2006.
• TheDepartment of Health (DoH) provides local communities with pan and pipe sanitation systems for reducing outbreaks of water-borne diseases.  
• ‘National Sanitation Week’ is held annuallyto highlight the importance of personal hygiene and sanitation for decreasing health risks.  

A two-pronged approach is needed to improve the adaptive capacity of the Public Health Sector in Myanmar. This includes: i) the development of climate-resilient health care units; and ii) the dissemination of information to change community behaviour to prepare them for climate-induced health risks. Based on the adaptation needs identified by vulnerable communities during the PRA (see Annex 2 for a detailed list of these needs), the following is a summary of the adaptation options that should be considered for effective adaptation in the public health sector:  

• improving public awareness and educationto prevent potential climate-induced health risks such as heat stress and water-borne diseases; 
• researching the short- and long- term effects of climate change on human health risk e.g.

relationships between microbial ecology, meteorological and projected/historical climate change data; 

• improving the management of the government‟s medical registration/information database;  
• expansion of diagnosis, treatment and prevention systemsin response to new infectious diseases and other illnesses linked to climate change; and 
• construction of climate proof health carecentres in vulnerable areas.  

The above adaptation options have been incorporated into ten Adaptation Project Options for potential implementation in Myanmar (Table 9). Adaptation Project Options have been ranked in importance (1 = highest priority, 10 = lowest priority) for reducing the vulnerability of the Public Health sector and related communities to climate change impacts. Please see the methods and criteria used for ranking Adaptation Project Options in Chapter 4 and 6. 

Table 9. Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the Public Health Sector to climate change impacts.  

Water Resources 

Considerable investments have been made to ensure water security across Myanmar. The Government initiated a number of irrigation schemes from 1988 to 2010 to maintain agriculture productivity during dry periods. Additional measures to assist water security in Myanmar include: 

• TheYangon City Development Committee(YCDC) has been implementing tube-wells to supplement piped water supply from reservoirs. 
• TheWater Resources Utilization Department (WRUD)is using artesian tube-wells in the Sagaing Region and shallow/deep tube-wells in the Mandalay Region to utilise ground water for irrigation. 
• TheElectric-powered Water Pumping Projectand the Meiktila-Thazi Groundwater Irrigation Projectwere recently implemented in the Meiktila plain. 
• A range of local and international NGOs provide treadle pumpsfor assisting communities to obtain drinking water in rural areas. 
• The Irrigation Department in collaboration with the Italian Government and Food and Agriculture Organisation(FAO)installed a number of small-scale water impoundments during 2010 and 2011. 

An integrated approach to water resource management is essential to ensure the resilience of water supply under future climate change conditions. Based on the adaptation needs identified by vulnerable communities during the PRA (see Annex 2 for a detailed list of these adaptation needs), the following is a summary of the adaptation options that should be considered for effective adaptation in the water resources sector: 

• improving residential water supply byi) adapting dams, weirs and ponds ii) reducing water losses in distribution pipes; iii) developing water level monitoring systems; iv) introducing water saving technologies; v) rainwater harvesting; vi) raising awareness of water saving practices; and vii) constructing gravity-flow water supply systems;  
• improving the efficiency of irrigation systems by introducing: i) water efficient irrigation schemes e.g. drip, micro-spray and night irrigation; ii) salt- and drought-tolerant crop varieties; and iii) effective methods for utilising groundwater resources;  
• improving water quality by:i) renovating waste water treatment plants (WWTP); ii) recycling wastewater; iii) developing river protection and sanitation zones; iv) improving chemical and biological monitoring; and v) construction of filtration systems at village water ponds; 
• increasing public awareness by training people of different ages/social status on water saving and sanitation methods; 
• conducting research to estimate the impacts of hydrological disasters; and  
• improving flood prediction and prevention systems.  

The above adaptation options have been incorporated into ten Adaptation Project Options for potential implementation in Myanmar (Table 10). Adaptation Project Options have been ranked in importance (1 = highest priority, 10 = lowest priority) for reducing the vulnerability of the Water Resources sector and related communities to climate change impacts. Please see the methods and criteria used for ranking Adaptation Project Options in Chapter 4 and 6. 

Table 10. Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the Water Resources Sector to climate change impacts.  

Coastal Zone  

The following measures have been implemented in Myanmar to ensure sustainable and communitybased coastal management: 

• The Government of Myanmar is currently involved in the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Programme, which promotes sustainable marine ecosystem management and sustainable coastal livelihood development. The programme aims to improve the lives of coastal populations through effective regional management of marine biodiversity and fisheries.  
• Four Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) have been established along Myanmar‟s coast, including 

i) Moscos Island; ii) Thamihla Kyuun; iii) Mainmahla Kyuun; and iv) Lampi.

• TheDepartment of Fisheriesin collaboration with Biodiversity And Nature Conservation Association (BANCA) and Fauna and Flora International (FFI) are planning to establish an MPA Network System that will incorporate existing MPAs, for example, the Shark Reserves in the Myeik archipelago (Lampi MPA).  
• A number of different agencies and organisations, including JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency), FREDA (Forest Resource Environment Development and Conservation Association), and UNDP/MERN (Mangrove Environmental Rehabilitation Network) are undertaking mangrove and coastal forest restoration efforts following damage from recent cyclones in Myanmar‟s coastal areas.  
• TheDepartment of Marine Sciencewithin the University of Mawlamyine has established an aquaculture research centre.  

Based on the adaptation needs identified by vulnerable communities during the PRA (see Annex 2 for a detailed list of these adaptation needs), the following is a summary of the adaptation options that should be considered for effective adaptation in the Coastal Zone:  

• restoration of mangrove forest shelter belts and establishment of coastal mangrove plantations and tidal woods using appropriate plant species for bufferingcoastal communities against the impacts of extreme weather events such as storm surges and tropical cycles;
• using ecosystem sensitive harvesting (timber, crab, shrimp etc.) and aquaculture practices to promote the recovery of mangrove ecosystems; 
• replacing current detrimental activities and livelihoodswith sustainable alternatives; 
• building capacity to promote/supportautonomous responses to external pressures, e.g. farmers switching to salt-tolerant crops; and 
• developing mechanisms (seawalls, dykes)toprotect coastal communities and agricultural land from sea-borne extreme weather events such as storm surges and cyclones. 

The above adaptation options have been incorporated into nine Adaptation Project Options for potential implementation in Myanmar (Table 11). Adaptation Project Options have been ranked in importance (1 = highest priority, 9 = lowest priority) for reducing the vulnerability of communities and economic activities in the coastal zone. Please see the methods and criteria used for ranking Adaptation Project Options in Chapter 4 and 6. 

Table 11. Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the Coastal Zone Sector to climate change impacts.  

Energy and Industry 

Many industries and economic sectors in Myanmar have limited capacity or financing to use modern technologies for harnessing efficient and renewable energy sources. The Water Resources Sector, for example, has limited access to energy efficient water purification technologies. Therefore, many communities suffer from scarcity of safe water supplies. Despite this, efforts are currently being made to support/promote the utilisation of efficient and renewable energy sources in the country. These include:  

• Projects have been implemented for harnessing Myanmar’s solar energy, including: i) Photovoltaic Power Systems are being installed in remote villages under the Technical Cooperation among the Developing Countries Programme; ii) a number of pilot projects are being undertaken by Solar Photovoltaic Battery Charging Community Enterprise; and iii) the Myanmar Scientific and Technological Research Department (MSTRD) in collaboration with the Department of Physics (Yangon University) are implementing the Solar Power Village Electrification Scheme. 
• Research on solar energyis being conducted, including the development of prototypes of solar equipment and the potential use of solar energy in: i) cooking and other household purposes; ii) water pumps; iii) solar drying for grain and fish products; and iv) salt extraction from seawater.  
• Research/implementation of pilot projects using ‘biogas’ is being conductedto capture cheap and efficient energy from methane gas produced from animal waste, particularly cow dung. Approximately 400 biogas stations have been constructed in the rural areas throughout Myanmar to provide cooking gas and light energy.  
• Myanmar’s fourth short-term five-year plan (2006/2007 to 2010/2011)of the National 30-year Energy Development Plan indicated that the country will invest in measures to improve energy supply, particularly within rural areas.  

One of the most important aspects for increasing the adaptive capacity of the Energy and Industry Sector in Myanmar is providing energy sources, which are sustainable. This will ensure that communities have access to energy supplies without natural resource depletion. Based on the adaptation needs identified by vulnerable communities during the PRA (see Annex 2 for a detailed list of these adaptation needs), the following is a summary of the adaptation options that should be considered for effective adaptation in the Energy and Industry sector: 

• installation of solar power technologiesfor water pumping and purification systems for increasing water supplies in the face of climate change while reducing high water pumping costs; 
• dissemination of information and transfer of technology/equipment for promoting alternative energy sourcese.g. inter aliaappropriate stoves, alternative fuel sources (legume plants and paddy stems), renewable energy electricity systems, heated driers, for increasing agricultural productivity and to create an enabling environment for job creation, employment and education.  
• installation of solar-powered aerobic septic tank systemsand other appropriate sanitation technologies for improving public health and ensuring climate-resilient water supply and sanitation systems; and 
• development of road and transport infrastructure.  

The above adaptation options have been incorporated into ten Adaptation Project Options for potential implementation in Myanmar (Table 12). Adaptation Project Options have been ranked in importance (1 = highest priority, 10 = lowest priority) for reducing the vulnerability of the Energy and Industry sector and related communities to climate change impacts. Please see the methods and criteria used for ranking Adaptation Project Options in Chapter 4 and 6. 

Table 12. Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the Energy and Industry Sector to climate change impacts.  

Biodiversity  

Myanmar has made concerted efforts to protect biodiversity within the country including: 

• An extensive Protected Area (PA) systemcomprising 43 PAs (35 designated and 8 proposed) covering 49,500 km²(7.3% of total land area). This surpasses the 5% target set by the Myanmar‟s Forest Policy but is still under the 10% set by the National Forest Master Plan (2001). 
• Protection and restoration of the spawningand feeding habitats for fish and other marine species as well as conservation of sea turtles through extension services and education activities. 
• Sustainable utilisation of aquatic resourcesthrough closed seasons, licensing, surveillance and enforcement of existing Fishery Law e.g. closed fishing season during June-August (spawning and feeding season of juvenile fish and shrimp species).  
• Restrictions on removal and tradeof restricted species e.g. Asian elephant (Elephas maximus), Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris tigris), Saing/Banteng/wild cow (Bos javanicus), Ayeyarwady- linpaing/Irrawaddy Dolphin (Orcaella brevirostris), Golden deer/Brow antlered deer(Rucervus eldi eldi) and Spotted deer (Axis axis) through the Protection of Wildlife and Conservation of Natural Areas Law, International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) red data list as well as Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITIES). 
• Community based approaches for site based conservation by Biodiversity And Nature Conservation Association  BANCA includingidentifying Important Bird Areas in Myanmar and promoting biodiversity through research, partnerships, environmental education and improvement of rural livelihoods. BANCA has identified more than 1000 bird species in Myanmar, including a rediscovery of the critically endangered Gurney‟s pitta (Pitta gurneyi)in 2003 within the Ngawun Reserved Forests. 
• Wildlife conservation training courses and small research grant programs are being undertakenby Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) for Hkakaborazi National Park, Hukaung Tiger Reserve, and Hponkanrazi Wildlife Sanctuary. WCS is currently exploring additional areas for potential PAs and environmental education programmes.  

One of the most important aspects for increasing the adaptive capacity of the biodiversity sector in Myanmar to climate change is to comply with sustainable harvesting strategies. This includes protecting sources of ecosystem goods and services in order to ensure continued yields. In particular, the conservation of wild populations as well as the protection of ecosystem services and biodiversity hotspots using well designed and buffered PAs and MPAs will be needed under future climate change conditions. Based on the adaptation needs identified by vulnerable communities during the PRA (see Annex 2 for a detailed list of these adaptation needs), the following is a summary of the adaptation options that should be considered for effective adaptation in the Biodiversity sector: 

• expansion and establishment of climate-resilient PAs and MPAsfor buffering local communities and biodiversity against climate change impacts; 
• developing a management model for PAs and MPAsthrough time as conditions change; 
• sustainable harvesting strategiesincluding the provision of appropriate fishing gear and aquaculture technologies for reducing pressure on marine species and ensuring maximum sustainable yields despite climate change impacts; and 
• sustainable climate-resilient aquaculture technologiesincluding locally adapted fish species for diversifying livelihoods and ensuring income.  

The above adaptation options have been incorporated into eight Adaptation Project Options below for potential implementation in Myanmar (Table 13). Adaptation Project Options have been ranked in importance (1 = highest priority, 8 = lowest priority) for reducing the vulnerability of the biodiversity and related ecosystem services. Please see the methods and criteria used for ranking Adaptation Project Options in Chapter 4 and 6. 

Table 13. Adaptation Project Options ranked in importance for implementation for reducing the vulnerability of the Biodiversity Sector to climate change impacts.  

4.  Selecting Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation 

Ranking and Prioritising Adaptation Project Options 

A simple multi-criteria analysis was used to rank and prioritise Adaptation Project Options presented in Chapter 3 above. This included: i) developing selection criteria; ii) weighting selection criteria per sector; and iii) scoring each of the eight/ten Adaptation Project Options per sector against the weighted selection criteria. A bonus point system was further used to screen Adaptation Project Options.  

Multi-Criteria Analysis (MCA) 

A set of 15 criteria were developed by the NAPA team in collaboration with local communities during the PRA. The final selection criteria used (Table 14) were based on the criteria recommended by LDC Expert Group^[98].  

Table 14. Selection Criteria used to rank and prioritise Adaptation Project Options

The selection criteria were used to rank Adaptation Project Options by a range of stakeholders from government, private sector and NGOs (~30 participants per sector) during sectoral Working Group Adaptation Prioritization and Validation Meetings. This entailed:  

• scoring each Adaptation Project Option as “0 or 1” against the full set of 15 criteria (Table 14) for eight main socio-economic sectors: i) Agriculture; ii) Early Warning Systems; iii) Forest; iv) Public Health; v) Water Resources; vi) Coastal Zone; vii) Energy, and Transport; and viii) Biodiversity; and 
• breaking ties between Adaptation Project Options by assessing the projects against an additional set of tie-breaking criteria. 

Once scores had been achieved per each Adaptation Project Option, the 15 selection criteria were weighted per sector by NAPA sector Working Groups (~2-3 individuals). Original scores obtained above were then multiplied by the weights determined for the 15 selection criteria and then summed to form an updated priority score for each Adaptation Project Option. An additional bonus point system was used for further screening of Adaptation Project Options. This included scoring each Project Option out of ten based on the level or degree to which the Project Option: i) addresses adverse effects of climate change; ii) reduces poverty to enhance adaptive capacity; iii) in alignment with other multilateral environmental agreements; iv) is cost-effective; and v) enhances adaptive capacity of communities, economic sectors and ecosystems. The bonus point system resulted in the potential for each Adaptation Project Option to gain an additional one to five points^[99]. Final scores were used to rank Adaptation Project Options in order of importance for implementation in the country. Based on this ranking, the top four projects per sector were considered Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation in Myanmar. Relevant information to support the implementation of these projects was developed and drafted into individual project profiles (see Chapter 5 and Annex 1). Socio-economic sectors were then prioritised in order to determine which Priority Adaptation Projects should be implemented first in the country.  

Prioritising socio-economic sectors/themes for implementing Priority Adaptation Projects  

In order to determine which projects should be implemented first in the country, a sector priority level was assigned to the eight main NAPA socio-economic sectors/themes by the NAPA team. Sector priority levels were then further refined during a public review process in April 2012, whereby professionals and government staff from a range of fields reviewed the prioritisation based on local experiences (see Chapter 6 for more details on the review process). The final sector prioritisation for determining projects for implementation is presented below in Table 15.  

Table 15. Priority levels assigned to NAPA socio-economic sectors by the NAPA team and further refined through a public review process. 

5.  List of Priority Adaptation Projects for implementation in Myanmar 

This chapter presents the top four priority adaptation projects per sector for addressing Myanmar‟s urgent/immediate climate change adaptation needs. A brief summary is provided per project in Table 16below. Priority Adaptation Projects have been selected based on the weighted criteria and methodology described in Chapter 4. Please refer to Annex 1 for detailed ~1-2 page project profiles for each Priority project including further information on the project‟s: i) Area/Location; ii) Beneficiaries; iii) Period; iv) Estimated Budget; v) framework including Main Components, Outcomes, and Outputs; vi) Agencies Involved; vii) Baseline Information; and viii) Climate Change Adaptation Rationale. The top priority socio-economic sector/theme in which Priority Adaptation Projects should be implemented first include, Agriculture, Early Warning Systems and Forest. This is followed by second priority level sectors Public Health and Water Resources as well as a third priority level sector Coastal Zone. Fourth priority level sectors include Energy and Industry, and Biodiversity. Although, project profiles are presented separately for each Priority Adaptation Project, it is important to note that project ideas/activities/elements can be blended across projects and sectors when designing final project concepts for implementation in the country. Furthermore, it should be highlighted that budget estimates: i) were based on course and subjective calculations; ii) were not determined at a fine scale of detail/at an Output or Activity level; and iii) can change according to the scale at which a project is implemented. 

Table 16. Priority Adaptation Projects (first to fourth priority projects) for implementation in Myanmar.

6.  NAPA Preparation Process 

The Evolution and Progress of the NAPA 

As a result of a series of unforeseeable circumstances/influences, the NAPA project deadlines and timeframes changed considerably throughout the NAPA preparation process. The NAPA project was first initiated in 2007, and assigned an 18-month timeline. However, following the retirement of the project coordinator Dr Tun Lwin (Director General of the DMH), in 2009 the NAPA project was terminated. The NAPA was, however, reinitiated in March 2011 under U Tin Ngwe as acting Director General of the DMH. A new 10-month timeline was established (with a deadline of December 2011). The project was further extended to a 15-month timeline (with a deadline of May 2012) when U Aung Win (NAPA Project Coordinator) indicated that 10-months was insufficient time for effective completion of the NAPA.  

Institutional Arrangements 

The NAPA preparation process consisted of seven steps that were coordinated and implemented by various institutions, teams and stakeholders. The institutional framework/arrangements that supported and coordinated the NAPA preparation process is presented in Figure 13.  

Figure 13. The institutions and teams involved in the NAPA preparation process.

Steps in the Development of the Myanmar NAPA  

The Myanmar NAPA preparation process followed the generic steps outlined by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Least Developed Countries (LDC) Expert Group^[100][101](see Figure 14). The process was structured around eight socio-economic sectors/themes i) Agriculture; ii) Early Warning Systems; iii) Forestry; iv) Public Health;; v) Water Resources; vi) Coastal Zone; vii) Energy and Industry; and viii) Biodiversity.  

Figure 14. An outline of the steps used in the Myanmar NAPA preparation process^[102]  

Step 1: Establishment of NAPA Project Management and multidisciplinary teams (April 2011) Teams were established for the management of the NAPA and to ensure stakeholder participation. These teams included: 

• The Project Management Team (PMT), which was responsible for the production of the NAPA document and the overall management of the NAPA process. This team was formed from members of the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH) and relevant national experts. The team included a project coordinator, project assistant, project director, team leader and consultants (including PRA facilitator). 
• Eight sectoral Working Groups (WG), namely; i) Agriculture; ii) Early Warning Systems; iii) Forest; iv) Public Health; v) Water Resources; vi) Coastal Zone; vii) Energy and Industry; and viii) Biodiversity. WGs comprised a combination of experts from a variety of institutions across Myanmar for each specific sector. These working groups combined to form the Multidisciplinary Integrated Assessment Team (MIAT). 

PMT and MIAT facilitated and executed the NAPA process. Both teams included stakeholders actively involved in the eight socio-economic sectors/themes in an effort to capture the immediate climate change pressures and adaptation needs in Myanmar. Teams also included individuals, such as the PRA facilitator, who were able to ensure a strong public participatory approach throughout the process. The inclusion of a bottom-up approach allowed for the integration of indigenous knowledge into the NAPA process.  

Step 2: Synthesis of available information (May – July 2011) 

Sectoral literature reviews were conducted by the eight WGs in the MIAT. The PMT conducted a further literature review, and integrated the sectoral literature reviews to form a combined synthesis of available information. Within the synthesis, information was compiled and analysed on the observed and projected climate change trends in Myanmar. This step was necessary to identify which geographic areas and socio-economic sectors are most vulnerable to the impacts of climate change. This review acted as the foundation for the next steps of the NAPA process. 

Step 3: Stakeholder and public consultation to establish Myanmar’s adaptation needs and potential adaptation projects/options (July – September 2011) 

This step was achieved through two interacting components: i) a participatory assessment (comprising a Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and a Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)); and ii) a series of sector focused WG meetings. This step was designed to identify Myanmar‟s climate change vulnerabilities and adaptation needs according to both rural communities and expert groups. 

Step 3.1. Participatory assessment to establish climate change vulnerability, adaptation needs and possible adaption projects (Annex 2). The following is an outline of the PRA process:  

• The participatory assessment comprised two appraisals, namely the Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA) and the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA). The RRA method is economical in terms of the research time, and allowed for fast assessment of the vulnerabilities and adaptation needs of the rural community. The PRA, on the other hand, used similar methods as the RRA however placed strong emphasis on community empowerment and participation. 
• The assessment was conducted in collaboration with local UNDP Integrated Community Development Project (ICDP) and Community Development for Remote Townships (CDRT) offices.  
• A small team comprising Myanmar nationals and staff from the local CDRT and ICDP offices conducted the groundwork and community surveys for the PRA and RRA. The assessment was conducted in three townships; i) Nyaungshwe Township (Shan State); ii) Kyaukpadaung Township (Mandalay Region); and iii) Bogale Township (Ayeyarwady Region). Townships were chosen to represent three vulnerable and ecologically distinct areas; the Hilly, the Central Dry, and the Coastal Zone.  
• The assessments were conducted to: i) identify the hazards, risks, and coping abilities of townships; ii) identify highly vulnerable sectors and regions in each township; iii) identify, rank and prioritise specific adaptation needs in each township (achieved by group consensus); and iv) collate and summarise these prioritised adaptation needs from each township into sector groupings. 
• A series of tools and processes were used to conduct the PRA, including: i) Focus Group Discussions (FDGs) and questionnaires; ii) seasonal calendars; iii) historical transects; iv) matrix ranking; v) community identification of needs for adaptation measures; vi) the selection of criteria for prioritization of adaptation measures; and vii) the prioritization of adaptation measures by the communities (using agreed criteria). 

Step 3.2. Focus group discussions with the eight socio-economic sectoral working groups (WGs).These meetings were designed to establish the adaptation projects/options according to the available information (synthesised in Step 2) and the information identified in the PRA and RRA (Step 3.1). 

Step 4: Sectoral working group meetings to identify and draft a list of Adaptation Project Options (October – November 2011) 

Adaptation needs and potential adaptation projects/options (established in Step 3) were used to identify a list of 77 Adaptation Project Options to be ranked and prioritised (under Step 5) for potential implementation in Myanmar. Eight to ten potential projects were identified for each sector. 

Step 5: Sectoral working group meetings for screening, ranking and prioritising identified adaptation projects (October – November 2011 and March-April 2012) 

The NAPA activities identified in Step 4 were consolidated and validated during prioritization and validation meetings by sectoral working groups. Multi-criteria analyses (a series of 15 criteria developed by the LDCExpert Group) were used to rank and then prioritise Adaptation Project Options for implementation. Criteria were based on both social and economic benefits, for example, improved public health, improved water quality, and improved food security and were weighted in importance for each specific sector. A bonus point system was used to further screen Adaptation Project Options. The resulting scores for each Project Option were used to prioritise projects for further development and implementation (see Chapter 4).  

Step 6: Public Review Process of NAPA draft (February to April 2012) 

A public review process was undertaken in order to solicit public opinion on the NAPA draft document including Priority Adaptation Projects as well as sector prioritisation. A number of steps were undertaken to gather public opinion:  

• A press meeting was conducted to release the NAPA draft to the public. Reporters from 17 local newspapers and journal houses attended this meeting.  
• A summary of the NAPA was disseminated to local communities using daily newspapers and weekly journals. 
• Two public meetings were organized to inform the public of the NAPA Project and solicit their opinion. 
• NAPA Draft Reports were distributed to Sectoral NAPA Working Group leaders who further distributed the document to the public through their township offices. 
• The journal “The Voice” was used to invite readers to provide their views on the report as well as Adaptation Projects and priority adaptation sectors. 

A total of 363 replies were collected and reviewed by the NAPA team. Relevant insights and suggestions were then incorporated into the report.  

Step 7: Development of the NAPA project profiles (March - April 2012) 

To determine which projects should be implemented first in the country, a sector priority level was assigned to the eight main NAPA sectors/themes by the NAPA team. Sector priority levels were then further refined during a public review process in April 2012. Project profiles were developed for the Priority Adaptation Projects using focus group discussions and meetings with working group members as well as other key stakeholders. Project profiles include the: i) Project Objective; ii) Project Area; iii) Beneficiaries; iv) Period; v) Estimated Budget; vi) Project Framework including Main Components, 

Outcomes, and Outputs; vii) Agencies Involved; viii) Baseline Information; and ix) Climate Change Adaptation Rationale. Please refer to Annex 1 for detailed ~1-2 page project profiles for each Priority Adaptation Project. Selection of Priority Adaptation Projects was based on the weighted criteria and methodology described in Chapter 4.  

7.  ANNEXES

Annex 1: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles i.e. information for project implementation 

A detailed project profile is presented below for each Priority Adaptation Project. This includes: i) Project Objective; ii) Project Area; iii) Beneficiaries; iv) Period; v) Estimated Budget; vi) Project Framework including Main Components, Outcomes, and Outputs; vii) Agencies Involved; viii) Baseline Information; and ix) Climate Change Adaptation Rationale. Although, project profiles are presented separately for each Priority Adaptation Project, project ideas/activities/elements can be blended across projects and sectors when designing final project concepts for implementation in the country. It is also important to note that parts of the information described in the project profiles is subject to change. For example, by the time a project is fully designed, the baseline situation in the country could have changed and furthermore additional projects could be running in the country. Furthermore, budget estimates i) were based on course and subjective calculations; ii) were not determined at a fine scale of detail/at an Output or Activity level; and iii) can change according to the scale at which a project is implemented.    

Agriculture Sector: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles 

Project Objective:To reduce the vulnerability of local farmers in Myanmar‟s three agro-ecological zones to climate change impacts through locally relevant technologies, climate-resilient rice varieties and ex/in-situ conservation of plant genetic resources.  

Project Area/Location:i)Yezin Agricultural University (Mandalay Region, local point for education, training and research); ii) Dry zone (Mandalay Region, Magway and Sagaing Region); iii) Coastal and rain-fed areas (Ayeyarwady Region, Mon State and Pago Region); and iv) Hilly zone (Chin and Shan States). 

Beneficiaries: i)Local farmers at the project sites in the Central Dry Zone, Coastal and rain-fed areas and Hilly zones; ii) MSc and PhD students at Yezin Agricultural University, iii) Line Government Departments; and iv) local Non Government Organizations (NGOs). 

Period: 4 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 1.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing Agency:Yezin Agricultural University, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation; Partner/Cooperating Agencies:Department of Agricultural Research, Department of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Planning, Line Ministries, local NGOs, local farmers and Myanmar rice crop entrepreneur agency.  

Baseline Information: The Agricultural Mechanisation Department (AMD) under the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation (MoAI) is responsible for the: i) provision of farm mechanisation services on land preparation, harvesting and threshing; ii) production and distribution of appropriate farm machineries; and iii) dissemination of technical know-how on utilisation of farm machinery to local farmers. Despite efforts by the ADM, communities and local farmers do not have adequate agricultural machinery including combine harvesters, dryer machines and grain silos for ensuring agricultural productivity under future climate change conditions. Development of high yielding crop varieties and ensuring sustainable use of natural resources and conservation and utilisation of crop genetic resources is the main function of the Department of Agricultural Research (MoAI). Yezin Agricultural University is responsible for training and producing highly qualified agriculturalists. Please see the table below for information regarding related on-going projects. 

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Agriculture is the backbone of Myanmar‟s economy, contributing to 43% of GDP (in 2011) and making up to 11% of export earnings. Overall trends in observed climate variability/change in Myanmar indicate that temperatures have increased over the last six decades (~0.8ºC per decade) across the whole country. Furthermore, there has been an increase in occurrence and frequency of flood and drought events. These changes in climate have resulted in negative effects on crop production. In particular, local rice varieties are no longer adapted to local climate conditions. Furthermore, traditional drying, harvesting and storing practices are not effective under these climate extremes. Future climate change impacts will exacerbate this situation with increases in temperature and extreme weather events further hampering agricultural production. To ensure food security there is an urgent need to identify/develop early maturing and heat-tolerant rice varieties for Myanmar‟s three agri-ecological zones. Furthermore, mechanised technology such as combine harvesters and mechanical dryers particularly in Myanmar‟s rain fed agriculture areas are needed to ensure resilience of harvesting, drying and storing methods under future increases in flooding and drought events.   

Second Priority Project: Increased climate change resilience of rural and subsistence farmers in the Dry and Hilly Zones through legume crop diversification and climate-resilient varieties. 

Project Objective:To reduce the vulnerability of subsistence and rural communities in Myanmar‟s Dry and Hilly Zones by decreasing input costs while increasing food legume production under climate change impacts. 

Project Area/Location: i)Yezin Agricultural University (Mandalay Region, local point for education, training and research); ii) Dry Zone (Mandalay, Sagaing and Magway Region); and iv) Hilly zone (Shan State).

Beneficiaries: i)Local farmers at the project sites in the Dry and Hilly zones; ii) MSc and PhD students at Yezin Agricultural University, iii) Line Departments;  and iv) local Non Government Organizations (NGOs). 

Period:4 years 

Estimated Budget: US$1.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency:Yezin Agricultural University, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation; Partner/Cooperating Agencies: Department of Agricultural Research, Department of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Planning, Line Ministries, local NGOs, local farmers and Myanmar pulses crop entrepreneur agency.   

Baseline Information: Myanmar Agriculture Service(MoAI) is presently focusing its efforts on increasing production of major crops including pulses, paddy, oil crops, kitchen crops, vegetables and fruits. Please see table below for information regarding related on-going projects.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Food legumes are one ofMyanmar‟s main export crops and as a result play a considerable role in the country‟s economy. Breeding new and improved legume varieties enhances the resistance of these plants to a variety of stresses that could result from climate change. New and improved varieties will ensure that agricultural production and thus exports of this crop can continue despite climate change impacts. Encouraging farmers to cultivate more than one legume crop type reduces their risks to unforeseen climate events. Significant climate change impacts have already been witnessed in Myanmar‟s Dry and Hilly Zones. To ensure food security under further climate change impacts, conserving plant genetic resources, breeding new and improved varieties, land management and capacity building are urgently needed.  

Third Priority Project: Increasing the climate change resilience of Dry Zone communities by diversifying and intensifying home-gardens through solar-power technology, high-income fruit crops and climate-smart agriculture approaches.

Project Objective:To increase food supply and income through diversifying and intensifying homegardens using climate-smart agriculture approaches and to construct the water preserver for collecting rain water and underground water with helping of solar power technologyfor cultivating high-income fruit crops.  

Project Area/Location:i) Dry Zone (Mandalay Region, Nyaung U and Kyauk Pa Daung Townships). 

Beneficiaries: i)Local communities at the project sites; ii) Line Departments; iii) local NGOs; and iv) MSc and PhD students. 

Period:4 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 1.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency:Yezin Agricultural University, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation; Partner/Cooperating agencies: Department of Agricultural Research, Department of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Planning, Line Ministries, Local NGOs, local farmers and Myanmar Horticultural Crop Entrepreneur Agency.  

Baseline Information: Department of Agriculture focuses its efforts to increase production of major crops including pulses, paddy, oil crops, kitchen crops, vegetables and fruits. Please see table below for information regarding related on-going projects.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: The Dry Zone is one of the most climate sensitive and natural resource poor regions in Myanmar. Despite the fact that water is scarce, vegetation cover is thin, and soil is degraded, population densities in the Dry Zone are high and agriculture constitutes the primary land use in the area. The region, already characterized by low annual rainfall (508 mm per annum), is currently undergoing further decreases in rainfall as a result of climate variability and change. Therefore, there is an urgent need to reduce poverty levels and food insecurity in Dry Zone farming communities. With a diversified and intensified home-garden, a local famer will be better equipped to manage the uncertainty and changes created by climate change. New and improved local crop varieties will improve nutritional value for people and livestock, and help reduce vulnerability to illness. Furthermore, reducing input costs through climate-smart agriculture and solar powered technologies will increase income levels for the local communities.  

Fourth Priority Project: Reducing the vulnerability of livelihoods in agro-ecological zones to climate change through the transfer of a wide range of high-yielding and climate-resilient rice varieties.

Project Objective:To produce high-yielding and climate-resilient rice varieties appropriate for both the irrigated lowlands and the historically unfavourable areas (rain-fed lowlands, hilly and high altitudinal uplands) in Myanmar‟s agro-ecological zones. New rice varieties will have increased adaptive capacity to a range of climate change stresses e.g. drought resistant, aerobic, salt-tolerant, cold temperature-tolerant, deep-water rice, waterlogged/submerged varieties, quality rice and hybrid rice.  

Project Area/Location:Ecological rice growing areas in Myanmar including: i) irrigated and rain-fed lowlands; and ii) Hilly Zone areas. 

Beneficiaries: i)Local farmers at the project sites, ii) staff and under-graduate and post-graduate students of the Yezin Agricultural University; iii) Line Departments; and iv) local NGOs. 

Period:4 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 1.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency:Yezin Agricultural University, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation; Partner/Cooperating agencies: Department of Agricultural Research, Department of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Planning, Line Ministries, local NGOs, local farmers and Myanmar Rice Crop Entrepreneur Agency.  

Baseline information: The Department of Agricultural Research (MoAI) and the Yezin Agricultural University are responsible for training high calibre agriculturalists. Please see table below for information regarding related on-going projects.

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: 

Myanmar‟s dependence on rain-fed agriculture renders it extremely vulnerable to climate change impacts such as drought, flooding, high temperatures and prolonged dry spells. Such events precipitate widespread crop failure and food and water insecurity, and ultimately affect the sustainability of rural livelihoods. The conservation of indigenous rice varieties and breeding new, high yielding and climate-resilient rice varieties is a necessity for successful adaptation and food security, particularly in Myanmar‟s rain-fed lowlands and hilly and high altitudinal uplands.  

Early Warning Systems: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles 

First Priority Project: Improving weather observation capacity through a mobile and deployable weather radar system for providing early warning systems against extreme weather events.

Project Objective:To improve observation and monitoring capacity for extreme weather events (includinginter aliafloods, intense rain, strong winds with squalls and cyclones) in order to ensure fast and effective early warnings for communities at risk.  

Project Area/Location: Central Dry Zone and Coastal Zone 

Beneficiaries: Local communities, the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology as well as all other line departments at risk to extreme weather events 

Period:1 year 

Estimated Budget:US$ 3 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies involved: Executing Agency:Department of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH). 

Baseline information: The DMHis the main authority responsible for meteorological, hydrological and seismological related data collection, analysis and archiving. They are also responsible for early warnings and weather related bulletin dissemination. The main objectives of the DMH include:  

• to exchange information with other meteorological centres; 
• to safeguard lives and properties  by issuing early warnings and bulletins for all natural hazards; 
• to expand public awareness and education programmes on natural hazards and environmental issues; 
• to monitor climate change, water resources, air and water quality; 
• to assist all government organizations, NGOs and stakeholders by providing weather, hydrological and seismological information; and  
• to effectively assist all national projects through World Meteorological Organisation (WMO) and international/ regional/ bilateral cooperation.  

In order to achieve the above, the DMH has 161 manual meteorological observation stations. These stations are not evenly distributed across the country as locations are chosen based on ease of access and other logistical requirements as opposed to technical requirements. As a result, the station network is more concentrated in accessible plain areas than in remote mountainous areas.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Changes in Myanmar‟s climate system will result in more frequent extreme weather events and an increased likelihood of temperature extremes, heat waves, and heavy precipitation events. The importance of early warning systems to warn local communities of such extreme weather events is therefore increasingly important and urgent. While precipitation measurements can be achieved by means of rain gauges, there are disadvantages of point measurements (e.g. inter aliaspatial coverage), which are driving meteorologists towards using remote sensing methods. More sophisticated nowcasting technology such as radar systems (in combination with satellite-based estimates) have the potential to provide accurate precipitation estimations in data sparse regions of Myanmar. With an increased likelihood of future climate extremes in Myanmar, radar systems will be able to play an increasingly important role in safeguarding lives and property.  

Second Priority Project:Developing a flood early warning system for reducing the vulnerability of local communities to climate change impacts.

Project Objective:To improve early warning for hydrological flooding events through increased observation and monitoring capacity in combination with community based methods.  

Project Area/Location:Ayeyarwady Region 

Beneficiaries: Department of Meteorology and Hydrology and local communities 

Period:2 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 1 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies involved: Executing Agency:The Department of Meteorology and Hydrology; Partner/Cooperating agencies:Local Authorities, Local Communities, Department of Irrigation, Water Research Utilization Department, Department of Agriculture, Relief and Resettlement Department and NGOs.  

Baseline information: Flood forecasting and warning is the responsibility of the Department of Meteorology and Hydrology. The flood forecasting and warning system covers eight major river basins in the country. Daily river surface levels are issued for ~30 manual stations along eight major rivers in Myanmar.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Flood forecasting and early warning systemscontribute to climate change adaptation by improving the capacity of communities to prepare for and respond to flooding events, thereby safeguarding lives, infrastructure and livelihoods. Climate change scenarios predict that over the next 5 decades, Myanmar will experience an increase in the occurrence and intensity of flooding events. Implementing effective flood early warning systems will provide user agencies/communities with sufficient lead time to: i) minimise risk to life; ii) evacuate vulnerable groups; iii) move assets (e.g. food, livestock and personal items) to safer locations; iv) effectively use existing flood control/rerouting structures (e.g. dam management, temporary flood defences) to prevent inundation of property and land; and v) install flood resilience measures (e.g. sandbags).  

Third Priority Project:Assessing the hydrological impact of climate change on river systems.

Project Objective:To assess the impact of climate change on the Ayeyarwaddy River flow with a focus on flooding extent.  

Project Area/Location:Ayeyarwady River 

Beneficiaries: The Department of Meteorology and Hydrology, postgraduate students at local universities, agencies and line departments related to water utilization and flood EWSs in Myanmar 

Period:2 years  

Estimated Budget:US$ 1.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing Agencies:The Department of Meteorology and Hydrology; Partner/Cooperating agencies:TheIrrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation and an appropriate local university.  

Baseline information: The last study published in Myanmar, which focused on analysing and reporting rainfall-runoff relationships for the country, was in April 1983. To date, the effects of climate change on the hydrological cycle of the Ayeyarwady River have not been modelled and therefore adaptive measures cannot be integrated into on-going management activities.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Climate change will significantly affect the hydrological systems of major rivers in Myanmar. This in turn will affect water availability, runoff, river flow and flooding extent. Modelling the effects of climate change on water regimes at basin and sub-catchment levels will highlight actions required for responding to climate change conditions. Furthermore, information collected at a sub-catchment scale can be combined with meteorological information (for example, quantitative rainfall estimations, water level gauges and hydrological modelling) to determine the potential flooding risks during intense rain or storm events. The hydrological information collected and modelled in this project will assist with planning for water-related threats, implementing water resources development and early warning system design.  

Fourth Priority Project: Developing a drought early warning system for reducing the vulnerability of local communities to climate change impacts. 

Project Objective:To develop and implement an integrated approach to drought monitoring, management, early warning, forecasting and response mechanisms.

Project Area/Location:Central Dry Zone  

Beneficiaries: The Department of Meteorology and Hydrology and local communities  

Period:4 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 1.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies involved: Executing Agency:The Department of Meteorology and Hydrology; Partner/Cooperating agencies:Local authorities, local communities, Department of Irrigation, Water 

Research Utilization Department, Department of Agriculture, Relief and Resettlement Department and NGOs. 

Baseline information: TheDepartment of Meteorology and Hydrology (DMH) is responsible for providing effective early warnings for extreme weather events to a range of user agencies and local communities. Although not sophisticated, the DMH does have national systems for monitoring and issuing early warnings for cyclones, storm surges, flooding events, strong winds and intense rain. There is, however, currently no systematic drought monitoring or early warning system in place.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: A good historical record of point measurements provides the data for effective statistical analyses of climate mean values, trends and variations. Denser observation networks (point measurements) result in better information available for assessing and understanding current and future climate conditions of a country. The DMH only has 161 manual meteorological observation stations. These stations are not evenly distributed across the country, and locations are chosen based on ease of access and other logistical requirements as opposed to technical requirements. In order to adequately prepare for climate change impacts, including an increase in the occurrence and intensity of drought events, a greater number of point measurements are needed in certain areas at risk. Furthermore, increasing the capacity of the DMH to prepare seasonal forecasts can increase preparedness for climate change impacts and lead to better social, economic and environmental outcomes. Forming partnerships with Global Producing Centres for seasonal forecasting can reduce the high costs associated with drought monitoring and early warning.  

Forest: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles 

First Priority Project: Building the resilience of degraded/sensitive forest areas to climate change impacts through reforestation. 

Project objective:To restore degraded areas in Myanmar‟s Dry, Hilly and Coastal Zones using climate-resilient species and technologies for increasing ecosystem goods/services under a changing climate. 

Project Area/Location: i)Minbu, Magway and Nyaung-Oo Townships in the Central Dry Zone; ii) Nyaung Shwe, Kalaw and Pindaya Townships in the Hilly Zone; and iii) Labutta, Bogalay and Pyabon Townships in the Ayeyarwady Delta 

Beneficiaries:i) Local communities in the project area, ii) Forest Department, iii) Dry Zone Greening Department; iv) Myanmar Agriculture Services, and v) NGOs (Ecosystem Conservation and Community Development Initiative (ECCDI), Forest Resource Environment Development and Conservation Association (FREDA), Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Association (BANCA), Economically Progressive Ecosystem Development (ECODEV)) 

Period:5 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 3.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing Agency:Forest Department, Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry; Partner/Cooperating agencies:Dry Zone Greening Department, Planning and Statistics Department (MoECAF), line Ministries, NGOs (FREDA, BANCA) and local communities.  

Baseline information: This project will complement the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, in which reforestation and forest conservation is one of the main foci. It will also build on the ongoing restoration activities of the Department of Forestry (particularly activities based on the Community Forest Instruction (CFI)) as well as various donor agency projects in the region (see Table below). 

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Rivers and their valleys/basins are vulnerable to climate change related impacts, such as heavy rainfall, flash floods and droughts. Climate-resilient forests will reduce risks associated with these changing climatic conditions. The restored forests will be resilient to climate change impacts while enhancing ecosystem services such as: i) increased food supply; ii) soil stabilisation/erosion control (including decreased dam siltation); iii) soil fertility; iv) maintained/increased water quality; v) carbon sequestration; vi) maintained/increased water supply; vii) increased river flow for irrigation; and viii) increased hydro-electric power generation. An important component of the restored forests is that they will have a lower water demand compared with conventional planting and reforestation projects, and therefore will reduce water scarcity under climate change conditions. Furthermore, restoring ecosystems using a climate-resilient approach will reduce the impacts of climate change on vulnerable communities through providing alternative sources of income and a range of ecosystem services/goods. The presence of climate-resilient forests will play an important role in stabilizing degraded areas and the communities within them through providing a buffer against climate extremes.  

Second Priority Project:Community-based reforestation for climate-resilient ecosystems and rural livelihoods in degraded watershed areas of the Central Dry Zone.

Project objective: To restore degraded watershed areas in Myanmar‟s Central Dry Zone using climate-resilient species and technologies for increasing ecosystem goods/services under a changing climate. 

Project Area/Location: i)Pakokku, Minbu and Magway Townships in the Magway Region; ii) Kyaukpadaung and Nyaung-Oo Townships in the Mandalay Region; iii) Sagaing and Monywa Townships in the Sagaing Region 

Beneficiaries: i) Local communities in the project area, ii) Forest Department, Dry Zone Greening

Department; iii) Myanmar Agriculture Services, and iv) NGOs (ECCDI, FREDA, BANCA, ECODEV, SPECTRUM) 

Period:3 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 2.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved Executing agency:Forest Department, Dry Zone Greening Department; Partner/Cooperating agencies:Planning and Statistics Department (MOECAF), Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, NGOs (FREDA, BANCA) and local communities.  

Baseline Information: This project will complement the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, in which reforestation and forest conservation is one of the main foci. It will also build on the ongoing restoration activities of the Department of Forestry (particularly activities based on the Community Forest Instruction (CFI)) as well as various Donor Agency projects in the region (see Table below). 

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale:The Central Dry Zone is one of the most climate sensitive and natural resource poor regions in Myanmar. The region, already characterized by low annual rainfall (> 508 mm per annum), is currently undergoing further decreases in rainfall as a result of climate variability. These decreases will be further exacerbated by future climate change. Climateresilient forests will reduce the risks associated with changing climatic conditions in the degraded watershed areas of the Central Dry Zone. This is because they will be highly resilient to climate change while enhancing/maintaining a range of ecosystem services such as: i) food supply; ii) soil stabilisation/erosion control (decreased dam siltation); iii) soil fertility; iv) water quality; v) carbon sequestration; vi) water supply; and vii) river flow (for irrigation and hydro-electric power generation). An important component of the restored forests is that they have a reduced water demand compared with conventional planting and reforestation projects, and therefore will increase water supply under climate change conditions. Furthermore, restoring ecosystems using a climate-resilient approach will reduce the impacts of climate change on vulnerable communities by providing alternative sources of income and a wide range of ecosystem goods/services. The presence of forests will play an important role in stabilizing degraded areas and building the climate-resilience of communities within in them through providing a buffer against climate extremes. 

Third Priority Project:Community-based mangrove restoration for climate-resilient ecosystems and rural livelihoods in vulnerable and degraded coastal regions. 

Project objective:To restore degraded mangrove forests in Myanmar‟s Coastal Regions for increasing ecosystem goods/services as well as buffering local communities and ecosystems in the face of climate change. 

Project Area/Location: i)Yanbye, Myebon and Minbya Townships in the Rakhine State; ii) Bokepyin and Beik Townships in the Tanintharyi Region; iii) Laputta, Bogalay and Pyabon Townships in the Ayeyarwady Region 

Beneficiaries:i) Local communities in the project area, ii) Forest Department, iii) Myanmar 

Agricultural Services, and iv) Department of Fisheries; and v) NGOs (ECCDI, FREDA, BANCA, ECODEV, SPECTRUM) 

Period:3 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 2.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency:Forest Department; Partner/Cooperating agencies:Planning and Statistics Department (MOECAF), Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Ministry of Livestock Breeding, line Ministries, NGOs (FREDA, BANCA, ECODEV, ECCDI) and local communities.  

Baseline Information: This project will complement the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, in which reforestation and forest conservation is one of the main foci. It will also build on the ongoing restoration activities of the Department of Forestry (particularly activities based on the Community Forest Instruction (CFI)) as well as various Donor Agency projects in the region (see Table below). 

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: A number of global studies carried out after coastal disasters have documented the important role that coastal ecosystems play in coastal protection against extreme weather events^[103]. Protection by vegetation depends upon the stand size, density, species composition and structure. Degraded ecosystems are less likely to function as buffers^[104]. Mangrove forest areas along the Rakhine and Ayeyarwady coastal areas of Myanmar are severely degraded as a result of overexploitation and inappropriate agricultural practices, further exacerbated by the effects of climate extremes such as cyclones and flooding. The tropical cyclone 'Nargis' (2008) severely hit the lower parts of Myanmar, mainly Yangon and the Ayeyarwady Region, claiming many lives and causing damage to infrastructure, villages and remaining mangrove forests. Furthermore, tropical cyclones including „Mala‟, „Giri‟ and „02B‟ have also resulted in damages to livelihoods, property and mangroves. The loss of mangroves has severely reduced the flood regulation functions to protect local communities from climate extremes. Therefore, there is an urgent need to restore mangrove ecosystems, particularly in the face of increased intensities and frequencies of extreme weather events resulting from climate change. 

Fourth Priority Project: Enhancing the climate change resilience of rural livelihoods through community-based restoration at the Indawgyi and Inle Lake watershed areas in the Northern Hilly Region. 

Project Objective:To restore the degraded Indawgyi and Inle watershed areas using climateresilient species and technologies for increasing ecosystem goods/services, while buffering local communities and ecosystems under a changing climate.  

Project Area/Location: i), Moe Hnyin Township, Myitkyina District, Kachin State (Indawgyi Lake); ii) Nyaung Shwe Township, Taunggyi District, Shan State (South, Inle Lake) 

Beneficiaries: i) Local communities in the project areas, ii) Forest Department, iii) Myanmar 

Agriculture Services, iv) Department of Fisheries, v) Water Resources Department; vi) NGOs (ECCDI, FREDA, BANCA, ECODEV, SPECTRUM) 

Period:3 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 2.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing Agency:Forest Department; Partner/Cooperating agencies:Planning and Statistics Department (MOECAF), Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Ministry of Livestock Breeding, line Ministries, NGOs (FREDA, BANCA, ECODEV, ECCDI) and local communities 

Baseline information: This project will complement the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, in which reforestation and forest conservation is one of the main foci. It will also build on the ongoing restoration activities of the Department of Forestry (particularly activities based on the Community Forest Instruction (CFI)) as well as various Donor Agency projects in the region (see Table below). 

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale:Myanmar is already prone to a range of extreme weather events (including droughts, cyclones and flooding). Upland areas already degraded as a result of shifting cultivation and unsustainable land use practices are particularly vulnerable to drought conditions. The Upland Watershed areas of Indawgyi and Inle Lakes are the biggest inland lakes in Myanmar and support a range of activities and socio-economic sectors including rural livelihoods; cultural (these watersheds are ASEAN Heritage sites); energy (particularly hydro-power); agriculture; water resources; fisheries; biodiversity; tourism and industry. In 2010, as a result of extreme high temperatures coupled with prolonged drought, water volume within the two lakes decreased, causing a drop in the flow of the Ayeyarwady River. Thousands of local people (mostly ethnic groups within the areas) suffered a shortage of drinking water and resulting health impacts. Currently these watershed areas are severely degraded, and climate change impacts are likely to exacerbate climate extremes such as high temperatures and prolonged drought periods. Climate-resilient forests will reduce risks associated with changing climatic conditions in the degraded watershed areas. This is because they will be resilient to climate change while enhancing/maintaining a range of ecosystem services such as: i) food supply; ii) soil stabilisation/erosion control (decreased dam siltation); iii) soil fertility; iv) water quality; v) carbon sequestration; vi) water supply; and vii) river flow (for irrigation and hydro-electric power generation). An important component of the restored forests is that they have a reduced water demand compared with conventional planting and reforestation projects, and therefore will increase water supply under climate change conditions. Furthermore, restoring ecosystems using a climate-resilient approach will reduce the impacts of climate change on vulnerable communities by providing alternative sources of income and a wide range of ecosystem goods/services. The presence of forests will play an important role in stabilizing degraded areas and building the climate-resilience of communities within in them through providing a buffer against climate extremes. 

Public Health: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles 

First Priority Project: Adaptation to climate change through climate-resilient health facilities in the Rakhine State and Ayeyarwady Region. 

Project Objective: Ensure health facilities are resilient to climate extremes to prevent damages and resulting high repair costs in the Rakhine State and Ayeyarwady Region. 

Project Area/Location: Health facilities and vulnerable areas in Rakhine State and Ayeyarwady Region. 

Beneficiaries: Local communities, health workers and patients. 

Period:2 years 

Estimated Budget: (US$ 200 000 per health centre)

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs 

Agencies Involved: Executing Agency:Department of Health, Ministry of Health; Partner/Cooperating Agencies:Myanmar Engineering Society, Ministry of Construction and Ministry of Housing. 

Baseline Information: In 2008, Cyclone Nargis struck the Ayeyarwady Region resulting in damages to health facilities in the area. Damages included: i) 20% of health facilities completely destroyed; and ii) 66% of health facilities in need of some level of repair. The resulting costs for repairing and/or rebuilding facilities without climate-proofing options have been estimated at US$ 2 billion. Two years later Cyclone Giri caused additional damage and expense. At present, there are numerous repairing and rebuilding activities being conducted in the Ayeyarwady Region. However, there are no guidelines/specifications for climate-proofing options to ensure that appropriate methods are being used. Furthermore, the particular climate change risk for an area has not been considered when designing rebuilding/repairing plans. Quality control is urgently needed in these areas to ensure that current construction activities will result in health facilities that are resilient to the predicted increases in frequency and intensity of extreme weather events. There are very few health facilities in the Rakhine State in comparison to the Ayeyarwady Region. Therefore, if there are only funds available for one best practice climate-resilient health facility, this should be constructed in the Rakhine State.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Over the last six decades, Myanmar has experienced an increase in the occurrence and severity of extreme weather events, including cyclones/strong winds, flood, storm surges and intense rains. Examples include the two recent cyclones, Nargis and Giri. The increase in occurrence and severity of extreme weather events will be exacerbated by climate change, with cyclones, flooding as well as other climate extremes occurring more frequently and at greater intensities. At present, the coastal areas of Rakhine State and Ayeyarwady Region encounter storms and tropical cyclones every year. In order to adapt to future increases in extreme weather events in these areas, climate-proofing options for existing and planned health facilities are needed. Climate-resilient health facilities will protect the life of patients and health workers during climate disasters, as well as ensure that health services are sustained during and after disaster periods.  

Second Priority Project:Integrating climate change adaptation strategies into the prevention of heat-related disorders in agricultural and industrial workers. 

Project Objective: To protectagricultural and industrial workers from morbidity and mortality as a result of heat-related disorders through promoting appropriate behaviour changes. 

Project Area/Location: Mandalay, Magway and Sagaing Regions.

Beneficiaries: Agricultural and industrial workers in high-risk areas. 

Period:2 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 1.5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs 

Agencies     Involved:   Executing   Agency:   Department    of    Health,    Ministry   of      Health;

Partner/Cooperating Agencies:Ministry of Industry and Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation. 

Baseline Information: During the hot season, temperatures in Myanmar‟s Central Dry Zone can reach 40ºC, often resulting in local communities suffering from heat stroke and other heat-related disorders. For example, during March-April 2010, a total of 1378 cases and 224 deaths were reported as a result of heat stroke in the Central Dry Zone. The Mandalay Region was most affected with ~9% of cases ending in fatality. As a result, the Department of Health presently focuses on using newspapers and TV-Spot to advise individuals on extreme high temperatures as well as the necessary precautions that they should be taken to prevent heat-related disorders. However, current efforts need to be enhanced and more focussed, particularly when considering climate change impacts.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Climate change will exacerbate the current effects of extreme high temperatures and heat-related disorders. Under future climate conditions, there will be an increase in temperature across Myanmar, with the Central and Upper regions experiencing the greatest increases. This will increase current maximum temperatures experienced in these regions resulting in an increase in occurrence and intensity of extreme high temperature days. Agricultural and industrial workers, under the typical working conditions, are regularly exposed to extreme high temperatures on a daily basis and therefore are at high-risk to heat-related disorders. Simple behavioural changes undertaken by the individual workers, company owners or managers can reduce the vulnerability of agricultural and industrial workers to extreme high temperatures. BCC has been shown, when implemented effectively, to create the supportive environment needed for encouraging desirable behaviour changes in local communities for a range of health risks. Preventing heat stroke and heat-related disorders through BCC among high-risk groups in Myanmar is crucial for adaption to climate change.  

Third Priority Project:Supporting Intensive Care Units (ICU) in hospitals to treat heat-related disorders. 

Project Objective: To provide quality intensive health care for heat-related disorders.  

Project Area/Location: Tertiary and secondary hospitals in high-risk States and Regions e.g.: Magway, Mandalay and Sagaing Regions.

Beneficiaries: Critically ill patients suffering from heat-related disorders. 

Period:2 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 1 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs 

Agencies involved: Executing agency:Department of Health, Ministry of Health.  

Baseline Information: At present, Myanmar has 25 national hospitals and 32 state and regional hospitals in the country. Whereby the national hospitals have relatively sophisticated ICU departments, the state and regional hospitals do not. World Health Organisation (WHO) has been providing support to state and regional hospitals in Myanmar since 2006, and will continue to provide support until the end of 2012. ICUs contain standard intensive care equipment; however, the rooms/departments have limited equipment for body cooling and heat-related organ failure treatment. The Department of Health has planned to replenish certain ICUs with standard equipment over the next year.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Over the last six decades, Myanmar has experienced an increase in temperature as well as the occurrence and intensity of extreme high temperatures. As a result, Myanmar has been hit with heat waves in recent years, with high numbers of reported cases of heat-related disorders and deaths. For example, in the summer of 2010, extreme high temperatures caused 1482 cases of heat-related disorders and 260 heat-related deaths across Myanmar. Although body cooling emergency management at hospitals saved many lives during these heat waves, inadequate equipment and capacity reduced the effectiveness of this effort. Climate change will exacerbate the current effects of extreme high temperatures and heat-related disorders. Under future climate conditions, there will be an increase in temperature across the whole of Myanmar, with the Central and Upper regions experiencing the greatest increases. Provision of body cooling and heatrelated organ failure intensive treatment/care is critical in managing heat-related disorders under future climatic conditions. Properly equipped ICUs and well-trained health workers at Tertiary and Secondary hospitals are essential for preventing further heat-related deaths.  

Fourth Priority Project: Reducing the vulnerability of local communities to climate-induced waterrelated health hazards through the provision of safe water supplies and sanitary latrines. 

Project Objective: To reduce climate-induced water-related health disorders (diarrheal diseases) through increased access to safe drinking water, improved sanitation and Behaviour Change Communication (BCC).   

Project Area/Location: Central Dry Zone and other identified disaster affected areas. 

Beneficiaries: Communities in the Central Dry Zone and other disaster affected areas.

Period:2 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 1.5 million  

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs 

Agencies Involved: Executing Agency:Department of Health, Ministry of Health.

Baseline Information: Diarrheal outbreaks occur mostly during the summer and rainy seasons in Myanmar. Water source contamination resulting from extreme weather events and unsanitary practices is the main cause of these outbreaks. In order to reduce the prevalence of water-borne diseases, the Department of Health(DoH)provides local communities with pans and pipes for setting up sanitation systems. The DoH also provides advice to communitieson how to use the sanitary latrines in an appropriate manner for reducing health risks. After extreme weather events (e.g. Cyclone Nargis and Giri), the Department of Health (in collaboration with other departments and various donor organisations) is presently focussing on communicable disease control, including activities to improve water supply and sanitation in affected areas. The government also runs a „National Sanitation Week‟ in Myanmar to increase the awareness of local communities on the importance of hygiene and sanitation in decreasing health risks.  

Climate Change Rationale: Climate extremes, such as drought and flooding, result in water scarcity and water source contamination, both of which are the main contributing factors for diarrheal disease outbreaks in Myanmar. Climate change scenarios predict that Myanmar will experience long-term climatic changes such as: i) an increase in temperature (~04 - 3.5ºC over the next 10 to 90 years); ii) rainfall variability; and iii) sea-level rise. Furthermore, there will be an increase in the occurrence and intensity of extreme weather events such asi) cyclones/strong winds; ii) flood, iii) storm surge; iv)intense rains; v) extreme high temperatures; and vi) drought. Without resilient water supplies and sanitation for communities in Myanmar, climate change impacts will result in unsanitary drinking water, which will have negative affects on personal hygiene and lead to the transmission of diarrhoeal diseases. Solutions for resilient water supplies and improved sanitation in the face of climate change are urgently needed in Myanmar, particularly for areas that are prone to extreme weather events. 

Water Resources Sector: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles 

First Priority Project: Assessing the status of dams for providing sustainable water supplies and withstanding flood risks under future climate change. 

Project Objective:To re-evaluate the current design parameters of three of Myanmar‟s large storage dams to provide recommendations and guidelines on future design parameters for withstanding current and future climate change impacts on water supplies and flooding events.  

Project Area/Location:i) Mone Multipurpose Dam, Setuktara Township (Magway Region); ii) 

Ngamoeyeik Dam, Hlegu Township (Yangon Region); iii) Thaphanseik Dam, Kyunhla Township (Sagaing Region). 

Beneficiaries: Local communities near project sites. 

Period:2 Years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 1.5 million  

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Executing agency:Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation.  Baseline Information: The government has invested large amounts of capital in constructing irrigation facilities across Myanmar. These include 251 dams and reservoirs (most being earth fill dams) and 48 storage tanks. One of the main objectives of the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation is to improve the agriculture sector through increasing paddy production by ensuring adequate water supplies. Therefore, rehabilitating and reinforcing conventional dams for withstanding climate change impacts falls in line with this objective. To date, the Irrigation Department has not yet implemented a project related to climate change adaptation measures in cooperation with an international agency.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Myanmar‟s Dams are unprepared for climate change conditions. Most of the 251 dams and reservoirs in Myanmar were constructed between 1988 and 2000, and were designed for river flows that have subsequently changed. Climate variability and change has resulted in altered temperatures, rainfall patterns/intensities and other hydrological processes over the last ~six decades. Changes in hydro-meteorological patterns have resulted in two predominant problems for Myanmar‟s dams: i) a reduction of inflow; or ii) excessive inflows resulting in extreme unmanageable flooding events. As a result of excessive flooding events, the amount of water stored in existing dams has fluctuated drastically. This has caused extensive water spillage and damage to spillway facilities. Reduced inflow in some cases has resulted in a reduction of water supplies for irrigation. This problem has worsened in recent years, resulting in storage water in certain reservoirs being reserved only for drinking purposes. Climate change impacts are expected to exacerbate these problems, causing future difficulties in managing water supplies and flooding events. The conventional methods for building and repairing dams in Myanmar is fundamentally flawed when considering likely climate change impacts. In this regard, re-evaluating existing dams in Myanmar is urgently required in order to analyse the original design parameters, and to develop innovative design parameters appropriate for future climate change conditions. 

Second Priority Project: Constructing small-scale water impoundments in Naypyidaw for flood control and increasing water supplies for local communities.

Project Objective:To supply sufficient and secure drinking and irrigation water to the Naypyidaw Region through two small-scale earth fill dams. This will contribute directly to reducing water shortage problems as well as assist with managing flood risks.  

Project Area/Location:Oatarathiri Township, Naypyidaw Region including the Chaungmagyi and Ngaleik catchment areas and associated existing dams. 

Beneficiaries: Local communities near projects sites in the Naypyidaw Region. 

Period:1 Year 

Estimated Budget:US$ 3.56 million  

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Executing Agency:Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation; Partner/Cooperating agencies:  Line Departments or Private Sector Companies.  

Baseline Information: The Irrigation Department implemented seven small-scale water impoundments (tanks) during 2010 and 2011 in Yamethin District of Dry Zone Area near Naypyidaw. These water tanks were mainly funded by the Italian Government through the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO).  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Current decreases in rainfall and increases in temperature have resulted in reservoirs and water tanks in Myanmar receiving decreased inflow, resulting in largescale water shortages. These changes have been particularly prevalent in the Dry Zones of Myanmar. Climate change is projected to further increase the variability and intensity of rainfall over Myanmar, resulting in both increased flooding and increased dry spells. Implementing large dams to meet the urgent and immediate needs of communities for water supplies is not feasible, mainly because of the extensive time requirements and costs for building these structures. Using small-scale, cost-effective and rapidly installed earth fill dams in the upstream areas of Chaungmagyi and Ngaleik catchment will provide a convenient and reliable water supply, particularly during seasonal dry periods and droughts. The implementation of these earth fill dams near urban and rural communities in the Naypyidaw Region will also act to increase agricultural production. Increased rainwater storage capacity upstream will reduce the effect of flooding events on downstream infrastructure and lives. 

Third Priority Project: Protecting human life and property against climate extremes in the Ayeyarwady river system through channel improvement and adaptation structures.

Project Objective:To enhance physical safety including protecting life and property against climate extremes and disasters in the Ayeyarwady river system while increasing water supplies for irrigation and domestic use through appropriate channel improvement and using regulating methods. 

Project Area/Location:Mayoegone waterways, Myin Mu Township, Ayeyarwady River. 

Beneficiaries: Local communities that use the river for transport, fishing activities and water supplies; private sector vessels and related companies; communities and infrastructure at risk to climate extremes such as flooding and drought. 

Period:1 year 

Estimated Budget:US$ 0.6 million  

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Executing Agency:Directorate of Water Resources and Improvement of River Systems, Ministry of Transport; Partner/Cooperating agencies: Local communities, related government organizations and investors. 

Baseline Information: The main objectives ofthe Directorate of Water Resources and Improvement of River Systems are to: i) improve the river navigation channels; ii) stabilise inland river ports; iii) reduce river bank erosion; iv) cooperate with other organisations to demarcate danger levels for nearby towns; v) utilise river water for domestic use and agriculture; vi) observe the long-term existence of cross river bridges; vii) manage river water pollution; and viii) ensure river depths are adequate for maximum loading capacity vessels. These activities are planned around current river conditions without taking into consideration future climate change impacts and changes.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Myanmar‟s major river systems are largely influenced by monsoon events. The current condition of Myanmar‟s river systems are not suitable for ensuring physical safety (including life and property) under climate extremes (flood and drought). For example, river systems are severely degraded and display visible signs of degradation and altered hydrology e.g. braided channels, insufficient depth in the low water season, erosion and sedimentation in the wet season. This degradation is further aggravated during flooding events. Climate change impacts will exacerbate the already degraded conditions of these river systems resulting in further decreases in navigation potential and capacity for providing water supplies. Mayoegone waterway is located on the Ayeyarwady River, 20 km downstream from Myin Mu. During the low water season, braided channels lead to create shallow depths and sand bars in this stretch of the river. Constructing channel improvement structures (e.g. installation of groynes) and implementing riverbed regulation methods (e.g. dredging) will increase the river‟s ability to withstand climate extremes and will safeguard life and property. Furthermore, improved waterways will assist nearby water pumping stations provide water supplies to local communities for irrigation and domestic use.  

Fourth Priority Project: Estimating regional rainfall-runoff relationships for supporting the development of flood early warning systems (EWS) and ensuring sustainable water management.

Project Objective:To estimate current and future regional rainfall-runoff relationships to inform optimum hydro-meteorological design parameters and flood EWSs, and therefore assist regional water managers manage anticipated changes in the hydrological cycle.  

Project Area/Location: Central Dry Zone and southern Myanmar. 

Beneficiaries: Agencies and Line Departments related to water utilization and flood EWSs in Myanmar. 

Period: 1.5 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 1 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency:Irrigation Department, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation; Partner/Cooperating agencies: other Line Departments and the Private Sector. 

Baseline Information: The last study published in Myanmar that focused on analysing and reporting rainfall-runoff relationships for the country was in April 1983. At present, the Irrigation Department within the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation are using either out of date historical data or basic isohyets for determining flood management procedures as well as for informing key design parameters for infrastructure and storage dams. 

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: The hydrological cycle (surface and ground sources, glaciers, precipitation and runoff) is very sensitive to small climatic shifts as well as changes in land use e.g. agriculture land conversions and urbanisation. Therefore, future climate changes will play a significant role in altering Myanmar‟s hydrological cycles. This means that historic data will not be a reliable predictor of future hydrological pattern. For future water management in Myanmar, managers will have to use historical records as well as longer-term forecasts to calculate dam management procedures under a warmer climate with more climatic extremes (droughts and flooding). In order to generate cost-effective and optimum design parameters for planning and implementing water resources development in Myanmar, a run-off model for future climate trends needs to be developed. In addition to this, a model for the future climate change effects on regional rainfall-runoff relationships needs to be generated. This information will assist with planning for water related threats, implementing water resources development and early warning system design.  

Coastal Zone: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles 

First Priority Project: Adaptation to climate change through Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM).

Project Objective:To achieve sustainable coastal zone management and livelihoods in the face of climate change. 

Project Area/Location:Myeik Archipelago, Tanintharyi Region 

Beneficiaries: i) Local communities, ii) Fisheries Sector; iii) Forestry Sector; and iv) Biodiversity 

Sector

Period:4 years 

Estimated Budget: US$ 800,000  

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency: Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Association (BANCA);  Partner/Cooperating agencies: Forest Department, Ministry of Environmental Conservation and Forestry, Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Marine Science Departments, Ministry of Education, Myanmar Naval Forces, local Authorities, Myanmar Fisheries Federation (MFF) and local communities.  

Baseline information: The Government of Myanmar has expressed its commitment to sustainable marine ecosystem management and sustainable coastal livelihoods through its involvement in the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME) Programme (US$ 32 million over a 5-year period). This programme focuses on improving the lives of coastal populations through effective regional management of the Bay of Bengal‟s marine biodiversity and fisheries. Furthermore, the Department of Fisheries in collaboration with BANCA and Fauna and Flora International (FFI) plan to develop a MPA network system for Myanmar‟s coastline.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: ICZM is a multi-purpose strategy that analyses and addresses implications of development, conflicting uses, and interrelationships between physical processes and human activities within a coastal zone. It promotes linkages as well as collaboration among the different sectors/activities occurring in the coastal zone. ICZM within the Myeik Archipelago is urgently required to sustainably develop the area‟s tourism potential while protecting the diverse array of intact marine habitats (e.g. coral reef, seagrass, and mangroves) and species that exist in the region. Climate change is already negatively affecting Myanmar‟s coastal communities. According to the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), three adaptation strategies are recommended for responding to sea-level rise, including: i) retreat and resettle inland; ii) continue to occupy the land but make certain adjustments to livelihood practices; and iii) protect land and livelihoods using hard and soft measures. In order to adequately plan for sea-level rise within the coastal zone, cross-sectoral planning and decision-making (including local community participatory approaches) are required to improve economic opportunities (i.e. tourism) and environmental conditions for coastal communities. Such planning and decision-making will also help to conserve biodiversity within these areas in the face of climate change. Conventional ICZM (without considering future climate change impacts) considers natural hazards and climate variability, and programmes often address erosion, storm impacts, water quality, sanitation, fisheries, tourism, ports, infrastructure, floodplain management, building standards and conservation of ecosystems. ICZM within this programme will incorporate the latter conventional considerations as well as planning for future climate change impacts through the provision of technical and scientific information.  

Second Priority Project:Community-based mangrove reforestation for building climate-resilient ecosystems and rural livelihoods in degraded coastal areas in the Rakhine State.

Project Objective:To reduce the vulnerability of communities in the Rakhine Coastal Zone through climate-resilient mangrove forests and integrated farming systems.  

Project Area/Location:Gwa Township, Thandwe District, Rakhine State 

Beneficiaries: i) Local communities; ii) Forestry Sector; and iii) Fisheries Sector

Period:5 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 3 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing Agency: Forest Department. Partner/Cooperating agencies: Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries; Ministry of Tourism; local Authorities; Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Association (BANCA); and local communities.  

Baseline information:As result of the recent devastating cyclone events affecting the Ayeyarwady Delta and its coastal forests, there have been considerable reforestation activities occurring in this region including projects such as inter alia: i) Integrated mangrove rehabilitation and management through community participation in the Ayeyarwady Deltaby JICA (2007-2013) ii) Community plantations with mangrove species in some parts of Pyindaye and Kadonkani reserved forests, Ayeyarwady delta by FREDA (on-going); and iii) Ecological Mangrove Restoration Programme in the Ayeyarwaddy Delta by Action Aid Project (Australian Government). The only restoration activities that are intensively focused on the Rakhine State are being implemented by the UNDP with MERN. As a result of the location of the Rakhine coastal zone, it is prone to natural calamities such as flood, cyclones, storm surges and tsunamis. The area contains diverse ecosystems such as coral reef, seagrass beds and mangroves, and therefore has potential for ecotourism operations. The coastal forest systems in these areas are currently being over-utilised and are severely degraded. At present, BANCA and Oikos are in the process of setting up a project on biodiversity surveys at the Gwa Township areas.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Climate change threatens to severely hamper local communities in the Rakhine area as a result of an increase in coastal floods and storm surges. In terms of adaptation to climate change, the main benefit of mangrove restoration for local communities is the reduction of incoming waves and tidal variation in the intertidal zone. For example, mangroves dissipate the energy of approaching waves because they exist as a rough and irregular surface on which waves can break. This reduces coastal flood risk and decreases the height of storm surges. Integrated farming systems contribute to climate change adaptation as the diversification of crops, livestock and aquaculture (including the use of more than one variety/species of each) ensures a safety net of numerous livelihood options in the face of uncertain weather conditions. For example, integrated farming systems increase stability and resilience of production. This is because if one crop fails, another may survive, or if all crops fail, livestock and aquaculture resources will compensate. Although this project will focus on increasing the climate change resilience of local communities and coastal forests to climate change, there will also be mitigation spin-offs. This is because mangroves have been shown to sequester carbon at high rates and sometimes even more effectively than terrestrial forests. This “blue carbon” approach could be used to provide renewable financing for the project to ensure sustainability beyond the project‟s lifespan.  

Third Priority Project:Community based eco-friendly aquaculture systems (e.g. mudcrab, clam, shrimp and tilapia) for enhancing the climate change resilience of rural livelihoods and supporting the recovery of mangrove forest ecosystems.

Project Objective:To reduce the vulnerability of coastal livelihoods to climate change affects such as salt-water intrusion and flooding through integrated eco/mangrove-friendly aquaculture systems (including inter aliamudcrab, clam, shrimp and Tilapia).  

Project Area/Location:Pulaw Township, Tanintharyi Region 

Beneficiaries: i) Local communities; ii) Fisheries Sector; and iii) Forestry Sector

Period:3 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 600,000  

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency: Department of Fisheries; Partner/Cooperating agencies: Local authorities, and local communities.  

Baseline information: Currently there are no projects focused on eco-friendly integrated aquaculture systems using a variety of marine, brackish and freshwater species including mudcrab, shrimp, clam and fish species (e.g. Tilapia) within the coastal zone. However, there has been rapid growth of unsustainable marine shrimp culture throughout the region, resulting in large-scale clearing of mangroves, conversion of agricultural lands to shrimp ponds, pumping of seawater into freshwater areas (leading to salinisation of soils and groundwater), extraction of ground water and discharge of pollution and pond effluents. This has lead to severe environmental degradation as well as social conflicts between shrimp farmers, other land users and water users. At present, there are often no legal requirements for EIAs (Environmental Impact Assessments) for implementing shrimp farming in coastal areas. In cases where legal standards exist, the EIA is not effective. This is because there are no clear guidelines for eco-friendly aquaculture systems. 

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Climate change threatens to severely hamper local communities in the Tanintharyi area as a result of an increase in floods, intense rains and storm surges. Eco-friendly aquaculture systems will reduce the pressure that current aquaculture is placing on Myanmar‟s mangrove coastal ecosystems. The main benefit of mangrove recovery (i.e. passive restoration) in combination with integrated aquaculture systems (including fresh, brackish and saltwater species) will be increased resilience of livelihoods to climate change impacts such as flooding, salt-water intrusion, storm surges and intense rains. Integrated aquaculture systems will ensure that local communities are using a variety of species appropriate for a range of climatic conditions. Although, this project will focus on climate change adaptation through integrated aquaculture systems, it will also contribute to providing a set of clear guidelines for implementing eco-friendly aquaculture practices. Furthermore, mangrove regeneration/passive restoration has the potential to generate large amounts of “blue carbon credits” within the target area, as mangroves are extremely effective at sequestering carbon. This is a potential additional source of income.  

Fourth Priority Project: Small-scale aquaculture and mangrove buffers demonstration sites for transferring adaptation technologies to Mon and Tanintharyi coastal communities. 

Project Objective: To build the capacity of local communities for planning and implementing adaptation options for small-scale aquaculture. 

Project Area/Location:Thanphyuzayat, Chaungzone and Paung Townships, Mon State  Beneficiaries: i)Local communities; ii) Fisheries Sector; and iii) Forestry Sector  

Period:3 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 600,000 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executingagency: Department of Marine Science, University of Mawlamyine. Partner/Cooperating agencies: Local authorities and local communities. 

Baseline Information:The University of Mawlamyine is the leading university with aquaculture experience in Myanmar. An aquaculture research centre has been established at the University within the Department of Marine Science. This centre will be used for holding training sessions and workshops for the project. At present, there are no projects on eco-friendly aquaculture systems within the coastal zone. However, there has been rapid growth of unsustainable marine shrimp culture throughout the region, resulting in large-scale clearing of mangroves, conversion of agricultural lands to shrimp ponds, pumping of seawater into freshwater areas (leading to salinisation of soils and groundwater), extraction of ground water and discharge of pollution and pond effluents. This has lead to severe environmental degradation as well as social conflicts between shrimp farmers, other land users and water users.

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Mangrove habitats play essential roles in climate change adaptation, such as i) buffering communities from coastal flooding; ii) reducing erosion and trapping sediment; iii) increasing the land available for diversified local livelihoods; and iv) providing habitats for local animals/plants. Restoration in conjunction with sustainable small-scale aquaculture approaches are necessary as Myanmar‟s mangrove ecosystems have become increasingly degraded through both natural and human activities. As a result of a lack of local community awareness and resulting unsustainable aquaculture practices, mangroves are depleted in Myanmar‟s coastal regions. Therefore, education and training on sustainable eco-friendly aquaculture practices are urgently needed within these communities to increase the resilience of livelihoods and ecosystems to climate change.  

Energy: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles 

First Priority Project: Enhancing the resilience of water supplies in the face of climate change for rural communities through solar powered water purification and irrigation pumping systems. 

Project Objective: To ensure cleaner and safer water for drinking as well as sustained water supplies for irrigation under a changing climate through solar power. 

Project Area/Location:The target area is the Central Dry Zone; however, the project could also include townships in the Ayeyarwady Region. Villages in the Central Dry Zone will be selected in collaboration with Department of Development Affairs (DDA) in the Nyaung-U and Kyaukpadaung Townships of the Mandalay Region as well as the Chauk Township of Magway Region.  

Beneficiaries: i) Rural communities; and ii) local farmers (livestock and fishery).

Period:1 year 

Estimated Budget:US$ 3 Million  

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency: Rural Energy Development Committee; Partner/Cooperatingagencies: Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Agriculture/ Livestock and Fishery, Department of Development Affairs (DDA, under the Ministry of Progress of Border Areas and National Races and Development Affairs), UN Organizations, NGOs and INGOs.  

Baseline information: The Government of Myanmar has supported various rural water supply projects including the Ten Year Project for Rural Water Supply by the Development Committees of Sagaing, Magway and Mandalay Divisions (2000-2010) which was implemented by the DDA, Ministry of Progress of Border Areas and National Races and Development Affairs. The Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) provided the DDA‟s engineers with technical assistance during the project. In total, 72 electric pump stations and 42 medium electric-pump stations were established. Pumping systems for accessing groundwater resources were established at 36 sites. In addition to this project, Bridge Asia Japan and UNICEF have assisted with sinking tube-wells in the Central Dry Zone. Various UN organizations, INGOs and NGOs have been implementing potable water supply projects across Myanmar to improve living conditions in remote areas. After the devastation of Cyclone Nargis (2008), a number of international aid agencies (e.g. Munich Re Foundation, Arche Nova, Aktion Deutschland Hilft), local organisations and volunteers focussed on restoring drinking water by cleaning and repairing wells in 60 villages (Kungyangon and Amar districts) and providing toolkits, pumps and plastic sheeting (1m²– catching ~200 litres rainwater/day). The World Health Organisation, in collaboration with the Norwegian Government, donated four large and twenty small Portable Water Purification Systems. Training for staff within the Myaung Mya Township hospital was provided for installing and using the purification systems. Examples of technologies that have previously been used in rural water supply projects include: shallow tube-wells with hand pumps, deep tube-wells with tara pumps, deep tube-wells with India Mark ii pumps, gravity fed systems, improved hand dug wells and rainwater collection jars. Solar power is not currently being used in these rural water supply projects.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: At present, Myanmar is facing shortages in water supply as a result of limited quality and quantity of water. Future climate change will exacerbate this situation, particularly for villages in the Central Dry Zone and Inle Lake area where access to water is likely to decrease as a result of increased intensity and frequency of droughts, floods and extreme high temperatures. Within Myanmar‟s Coastal Zone, salt-water intrusion and increased flooding will contaminate water supplies, leaving many villages without safe drinking water. Solar water purification systems integrate solar electricity and water purification. Solar panels generate power for a battery that pumps the water through a filtration and purification system. A large water unit can produce ~4000 litres of purified water/hour, while the small unit provides ~50-70 litres of water/day. Pumping water for irrigation using solar power will increase the resilience of the water supply in the face of climate change, while reducing high water pumping costs, and thus sustaining agriculture production. Solar technology for ensuring the resilience of water supply for rural communities is urgently needed to sustain livelihoods and improve health and living standards in Myanmar. 

Second Priority Project: Enhancing the resilience of sanitation in the Shan Region to climate change impacts through solar powered aerobic septic tanks.

Project Objective: To improve sanitation in the Shan Region through sustainable solutions for reducing health risks (water-borne diseases) and increasing drinking water supplies in the face of climate change.  

Project Area/Location: Inle Lake area in the Southern Shan State. 

Beneficiaries: i) Rural households/communities; and ii) tourism (hotels and restaurant owners). 

Period:1 year 

Estimated Budget:US$ 2 million  

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency:Rural Energy Development Committee; Partner/Cooperatingagencies: Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Health/ Ministry of Hotel and Tourism, DDA (Ministry of Progress of Border Areas and National Races and Development Affairs), UN organizations, NGOs and INGOs. 

Baseline information: The Environmental Sanitation Division (ESD) of the Department of Health (DOH) under the Ministry of Health (MOH) has been carrying out institutional water sanitation activities, drinking water quality surveillance and pilot project monitoring. Many water agencies, particularly the DDA, have been working to improve the supply of water to urban and rural communities. One of the guidelines of the National Health Policy (1993) is to intensify and expand environmental health activities, including prevention and control of air and water pollution.  The Annual National Sanitation Week initiated in 1998, was the most effective advocacy campaign throughout the country and had great success in increasing community awareness and sanitation coverage.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: In the past, Inle Lake system existed as the sole source of drinking water for local communities. However, at present human and household wastes are deposited directly into the lake (i.e. direct latrine systems), causing health problems for the locals who use the water for drinking. Furthermore, septic systems that are functional in the area are leaking waste into the lake during high water periods as a result of poor design and position in the landscape. Recent surveys of the faecal coliform bacteria levels in the lake indicate that the water is unfit for human consumption, and as a result, many of the communities that can afford to do so have turned to using tube-wells or bottled water instead. High nutrient loads and contamination are also negatively affecting local livelihood practices including floating agriculture gardens and fish production and catches. Excessive weed and algae growth in the lake is reducing fish growth and population numbers. Furthermore, the poor environmental state of the lake is negatively affecting recreational activities that make this area the top tourism destination in the country. Under climate change impacts, living conditions at Inle Lake will worsen. Decreased water supplies, increased conditions for the spread of water-borne diseases as well as flooding will exacerbate health risks currently being experience by communities living near the lake. There is an urgent need for sustainable sanitation solutions, and appropriate water and wastewater management to increase the resilience of sanitation systems at Inle Lake in the face of climate change. Solar powered aerobic septic systems, for example, are appropriate for achieving sustainable sanitation, particularly in rural communities that do not have water infrastructure and generally do not have access to electricity. Furthermore, aerobic systems (as opposed to conventional systems) require less space, cause less groundwater pollution and work faster than anaerobic systems. This means that they can dispose of effluent in less time.  

Third Priority Project:Increasing climate change resilience of rural communities in the Sagaing, Mandalay and Ayeyarwady Regions by increasing livelihood opportunities through renewable solar electricity systems.

Project Objective: To increase community access to energy for supporting job creation, employment, education and channels for communicating early warnings to villages vulnerable to extreme weather events.  

Project Area/Location:Three project sites within the Sagaing, Mandalay and Ayeyarwady Regions.  

Beneficiaries: Rural communities.  

Period: 2 years  

Estimated Budget:US$ 5 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency:Rural Energy Development Committee;Partner/Cooperatingagencies, departments or private sector companies:Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Cooperative, Small and Medium Enterprise, Ministry of Agriculture/ Livestock and Fishery and DDA (Ministry of Progress of Border Areas and National Races and Development Affairs). 

Baseline Information: The potential availability of solar energy in Myanmar is ~51973.8 Terra Watt hour/year. The Central Dry Zone, in particular, has abundant solar energy resources available - surveys indicate the radiation intensity during the dry season at 5KW/m²/day^[105]. Harnessing Myanmar‟s abundant solar energy, however, is still in the initial stages. This is mainly a result of the initial (start up) costs, which are particularly expensive when considering the incomes of rural communities. Some equipment has been installed for villages in remote areas (to demonstrate the effectiveness of Photovoltaic Power Systems) under the Technical Cooperation among the Developing Countries Programme. Furthermore, a number of pilot projects have been carried out under the Solar Photovoltaic Battery Charging Community Enterprise which is financed by Energy Services and Income Generating Opportunities for the Poor (ENSIGN) in collaboration with: i) Yoma Bank; ii) Energy Planning Department (EPD) of the Ministry of Energy and Research (Demonstrative Research on a Photovoltaic Power Generation System in Myanmar); iii) New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization (NEDO) of Japan; and iv) Department of Electric Power of Ministry of Electric Power. In addition, a Solar Power Village Electrification Scheme has been implemented by the Myanmar Scientific and Technological Research Department (MSTRD) and the Department of Physics of the Yangon University. Furthermore, universities (e.g. Yangon University) are conducting on-going research into the development of prototypes of solar equipment. Current research is focussed on using solar energy for: i) cooking and other household purposes; ii) water pumps; iii) solar drying for grain and fish products; and iv) salt extraction from seawater.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Increasing the use of renewable energy will stimulate job creation, employment and education as well as increase the effectiveness with which remote communities can receive warnings of extreme weather events. Introducing renewable energy will create an enabling environment for work, studying as well as recreation. This is because at present many vulnerable communities rely on kerosene, candles or diesel oil for lighting and power. Solar energy is a reliable source of “free” renewable energy and has the potential to improve the socioeconomic status of rural communities in the face of climate change through: i) providing emergency lighting; ii) providing purified drinking water; iii) enhancing the effectiveness of national forecasting and early warning systems through providing 24 hours of power supply; iv) creating jobs e.g. agrobased and rural farms; v) boosting village economies through sustainable electrification; vi) facilitating education in remote areas situated away from the national grid; vii) improving health and living standards of rural communities; viii) providing recreational activities and access to information (e.g. television, radio and cell phones) for people living in poverty; ix) maintaining well-lit and secure main roads and streets in remote areas; x) enhancing income through livestock and fisheries; and xi) increasing the effectiveness of health facilities to provide well preserved medicines (e.g. solar freezer power). Solar energy is the cheapest form of energy and the use of Solar Home Systems will reduce the burden of electricity bills on local communities. Although initial upfront payments on the systems are expensive, the payback period is ~5-12 years and the systems last an average of 25 years. 

Fourth Priority Project: Increasing climate-resilience of harvested seed/grains through heated-air mechanical drying technologies. 

Project Objective: To improve seed/grain storage techniques in the face of climate change to reduce product and associated financial losses. 

Project Area/Location: Three project sites in the Sagaing, Mandalay and Ayeyarwady Regions. 

Beneficiaries: Small- and medium-scale farmers and rural communities.

Period:2 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 3 million 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency:Ministry of Industry; Partner/Cooperating agencies,departments or private sector companies: Ministry of Industry, Ministry of Co operative, Small and Medium Enterprise, Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation and Department of Development Affairs (Ministry of Progress of Border Areas and National Races). 

Baseline information: Increased cropping intensity has resulted in more farmers utilising mechanical equipment for land preparation and seed/grain harvesting and drying. The Agriculture Mechanisation Department (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation), the Ministry of Industry and many small-scale private factories are involved in producing and distributing agricultural machinery and equipment. Twenty-four model-mechanised farm villages have been established to demonstrate the benefits of farm mechanisation to local communities. Despite efforts being made by the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, current seed and/or grain drying practices used by rural farmers are not resilient to climate change impacts. Rural farmers generally use sun-drying techniques on the nearest concrete or tarred surface, for example, roads and road verges. As a result of poor land preparation, harvesting and drying practices, Myanmar exports mostly consist of low quality rice that fetches a price per tonne well below that of neighbouring countries.  

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: Traditional methods of drying seed and grain in Myanmar are simple and low-cost when compared to mechanical and heated-air dryers. However, under future climate change conditions, such as intense, sudden and erratic rainfall events, using mechanical and heated-air dryers will reduce losses, improve quality and ultimately result in increased income for rural farmers. At present, during the rainy season rural farmers are incurring post-harvest losses as a result of harvesting and storing seed/grain with high moisture levels. Without appropriate adaptation methods, these post-harvest losses will be further exacerbated under future climate change conditions. Access to heated-air dryers will enable farmers to harvest paddy at higher moisture contents without incurring losses or decreased quantity resulting from fungal infections. Furthermore, mechanical drying can be carried out at any time of the day or night. Seed and grain security will assist communities to prepare for droughts and thus help to address present food insecurity. Effective drying as part of an overall climate change adaptation strategy will result in safer storage, ensuring that feed is available for livestock and seed stock is available in the event of poor harvests resulting from drought events. Higher seed and grain security in the face of climate change will contribute to alleviating rural poverty and enhanced food security for households in Myanmar.  

Biodiversity: Priority Adaptation Project Profiles 

First Priority Project: Buffering marine habitats and sustaining fish populations under climate change conditions through community-based MPA management and ecosystem sensitive fishery practices at the Sister Group Islands of the Myeik Archipelago. 

Project Objective:To manage existing MPA area at the Sister Group Islands of the Myeik Archipelago to maximise the resilience of marine biodiversity, fish populations and local community livelihoods.  

Project Area/Location:Sister Group islands, Myeik archipelago, Tanintharyi Coastal area.

Beneficiaries: i)Local communities at the Sister Group Island, ii) local fishers, iii) Department of Fisheries, iv) Forest Department, v) Myanmar Fisheries Federation, vi) local communities within the Tanintharyi Coastal area, and vii)  local NGOs.

Period:2 years 

Estimated Budget:US$ 800, 000 

Project’s Main Components, Outcomes and Outputs: 

Agencies Involved: Executing agency:Department of Fisheries, Forest Department; Partner/Cooperating agencies: Myanmar Fisheries Federation, Relevant NGOs and Regional Conservation Organization/Institutions. 

Baseline information:Over the past decade, Myanmar marine scientists have been collecting data (including sampling of specimens) on the marine species and habitats in this region using a range of coral reef, dugong, shark, cetacean and sea grass surveys. As of 2004, the Myanmar Government (through the Department of Fisheries) established two shark-protected areas north of Lampi Island as well as at Ross Island in the Tanintharyi coastal area. At present, Myanmar is collaborating with Bangladesh, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Maldives, Sri Lanka, and Thailand through the Bay of Bengal Large Marine Ecosystem (BOBLME-2010-2014) Project to improve the livelihoods of their coastal communities and protect biodiversity by improving regional management of the Bay of Bengal environment and its fisheries. 

Climate Change Adaptation Rationale: MPAs are an important tool for restoring and sustaining the health of Myanmar‟s marine biodiversity. It is widely accepted that a network of MPAs can positively affect the biomass, abundance, size and diversity of fish species, and that these benefits result in sustained and increased fish catches outside the MPA boundary. MPAs need to be effectively managed in order to maintain or maximize ecosystem resilience, despite the effects of climate change. This can be achieved by ameliorating stressors such as overfishing and excessive nutrient inputs, as well as implementing and expanding MPAs in such a way that the linkages and connectivity among sites are preserved. It is important to use scientific research as well as on-the-ground monitoring activities to determine how climate change is altering the abilities of species to respond to local stressors and climate extremes. Particular roles for using MPAs as adaptation tools include: i) providing ecosystem buffers for people against sudden climatic events and reducing vulnerability to floods, droughts and other weather-induced problems (e.g. intact mangrove ecosystems); ii) supporting marine species to adapt to changing climate patterns and sudden climate events by providing refuges and migration corridors; iii) maintaining/increasing ecosystem goods/services under a changing climate e.g. food supply and disaster risk reduction; and iv) indirectly supporting local economies to adapt to climate change by reducing the costs of climate-related impacts. Networks of MPAs are valuable management tools in the face of climate because they provide potential refugia for species under multiple stresses. Maintaining healthy and resilient marine ecosystem at the Sister Group Islands of the Myeik Archipelago will promote sustainable fish populations and support the protection of marine ecosystems despite climate change impacts in this region.