INDIA REPORT E0026
NATIONAL
ENVIRONMENTAL
ACTION PLAN
Environment Action
Programme
December 1993
This report is property of MDIA
* E NYI RONMUNT ACtIOiN
PROGRAMME
INDIA
Ministry of Environment and Forests
Government of India
1993
ENIARONMENT ACTION
PROGRAMME
Ministry of Environment and Forests
Government of India
1993
VTW
MINISTER
ENVIRONMENT & FORESTS
INDIA
PREFACE
A year and a half after the historic Earth Summit on Environment
and Development and the formulation of India's National Conservation
Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and Development, we
have nowdrawn upan EnvironmentAction Programme,the firstdocument
of its kind. Itattempts te integrate ourconcemsforconservation, sustainable
development and human welfare with our quest for a dynamic economy
exemplified in the on-going process of economic reforms.
This complex document is thie product of an equally detailed and
complex preparatory process. The task of drawing up a blueprint for
incorporating environmental considerations into our rapidly expanding
development programmes involved wide-ranging intra-govemmental
discussions, spirited public debates and deep introspection and self-
assessment. As the document mentions. the task of the Action Programme
is to provide quality environmental services to the citizens of India,
particularly those struggling to come above the poverty level.
The document identifies popular participation as the means for
giving a sharper and discemible focus to our existing programmes in the
areas of conservation and environmental protection. The process of
drawing up the Environment Action Programme was itself participatory
and transparent. At the same time this document does not lay claim to
being a final product, either infallible or immutable. The Environment
Action Programme is a dynamic document which will evolve with time. As
India moves into a trajectory of high economic growth, the task of
protecting the country's environment would be increasingly facilitated by
local and regional level actions and interventions. It is my firm belief that
the document will serve to intemalise sustainable development practices
through enlightened policy and decision making and positive local and
regional level interventions to conserve India's rich natural heritage.
(KAMAL NATH)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Environment Action Programmne project has been undertaken by the
Ministry of Environment and Forests wfththe financial assistance received from the
United Natlons DevelopomeL Programme (UNDP).
The document owes as much to Inter-Ministerial perspectives as much as
to the professional expertise of several national research institutes within the
country namely, the Indian Institute of Public Administration, New Delhi. Madras
Institute of Development Studies, Madras. Centre for Environmental Science and
Engineering. Indian Insttte of Technology. Bombay. Indira Gandhi Institute of
Development Research. Bombay. National Environmental Engineering Research
Institute. Nagpur. Bombay Natural History Society. Bombay. Indian Institute of
Forest Management. Bhopal and the Tata Energy Research Institute. New Delhi.
A numberof experts and non-govemmental organisations have also contributed to
the developmentofthisdocument.Theircontributions are gratefullyacknowledged.
rm
com MrE as
1 INTRODUCTION 1 -19
2 STATUS OF THE ENViRONMENT 20 - 28
3 NATURAL RESOURCES 29 - 42
4 INDIA'S LEGAL AND ORGANISATIONAL 43 - 54
FRAMEWORK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
5 CURRENT PROGRAMMES 55-89
6 DIAGNOSIS 90-116
7 PRIORITIES 117- 127
8 SlRATEGY 128 141
9 PROGRAMMES 142 - 160
FIGURES AND TABLES 161 - 181
APPENDIX
I INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES AND 182 -184
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
11 CLEANER TECHNOLOGIES IN INDUSTRIAL 185 - 189
PRODUCTION
III MANAGEMENT OF WATER OUALITY 190 - 191
IV NATURAL RESOURCES ACCOUNTING 192 -194
V CONSERVATION OF WETLANDS 195-197
VI FORESTRY 198- 199
VII ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATiON 200 - 202
Vill URBAN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 203 - 207
IX ALTERNATIVE ENERGY ACT:ON PLAN 208 - 209
X CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERN OF 210 - 212
ENERGY IN INDIA
XI ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT IN INDIA 213 - 214
XII ORGANISATION CHART OF THE MINISTRY OF 215
ENVIRONMENT & FORESTS
ACRONYMS 216 - 218
REFERENCES 219 - 220
BOXES FIGURES AND TABLES
BOXES
- PEOPLE'S INVOLVEMENT IN REGENERATION OF DEGRADED FOREST LANDS
- INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION CONTROL PROJECT OF INDIA
- NATIONAL RIVER ACTION PLAN
- AFFORESTATION PROGRAMMES: APPRAISAL OF PROGRESS IN SEVENTH FIVE YEAR PLAN
- NATIONAL FORESTRY ACTION PROGRAMME
- SUSTAINABLE CMES PROGRAMME
- PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRICITY UTILMES IN INDIA AND PRIORITIES IN THE EIGHTH FIVE
YEAR PLAN
- DROUGHT PROOFING
- POLLUTION ABATEMENT PROGRAMMES IN INDIA - PRESENT EFFORTS AND FUTURE
DIRECTIONS
- ECONOMIC INSTRUMENTS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
- ENVIRONMENTAL STATEMENT FOR ENVIRONMENTAL AUDIT IN INDIA
FIGURES
1 STATUS OF AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
IN ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSMVE INDUSTRIES.
2 STATUS OF WATER POLLUTION CONTROL IN ENVIRONMENTALLY SENSITVE INDUSTRIES.
3 PROGRESS OF POLLUTION CONTROL IN 17 CATEGORIESOF INDUSTRIES.
TABLES
1 STATE OF AMBIENT AIR OUALITY IN 15 MAJOR CMES OF INDIA sN 1989; INFORMATION ON
NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR QUALITY MONITORING STATIONS
2 STATEWISE POSMON OFWATER SUPPLYWASTEWATERGENERATION. COLLECTIONAND
TREATMENT IN CLASS II TOWNS
3 LIST OF POLLUTED RIVER STRETCHES
4 LIST OF NAAQM LOCATIONS IN DESCENDING ORDER OF CONCENTRATIONS (ug/cubm)
BASED ON 1990 DATA FOR 16 OR MORE HOURS MONITORED DAYS
5 AMBIENT AIR QUALITY STATUS IN 32 RESIDENTIAL AREAS OF MONITORED CmES DURING
1990
I . |
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUA10N
1.01 Environmental protection and the conservation of natural resources
emerged as key national priorities in India in the wake of the 1972 Stockholm
Conference on Human Environment. Between the Stockholm Conference and
the Rio Summit, India has been able to develop a stable organisational structure
for environment protection in the country. Legislation, policies and programmes
also evolved during the same period, geared to the task of protection of the
environment Despite these achievements, there has been for some time, a felt
need to clearly establish our priorities in the environment and forest sectors and
design a programme of action for sustainable management of the environment
in the country. This need has arisen on account of the changing economic
structure of India on the one hand, and the national, if not, universal consensus
forintegrating environmental considerations into development programmes and
projects, for harmonising environment and development for a sustainable
development route to progress. Sustainable development, which has evolved as
the goal for human welfare in the aftermath of the 1992 United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development, is however, rooted in covntry -
specific programmes of action for channelling investment resources (both
domestic and external) into ecologically compatible projects and programmes.
People's participation at the grass-root, local and regional levels holds the key
tothe success of such a concrete programme of action. The objectives
of the Environment Action Programme for India have been conceived
against the backdrop of these aspects.
Objectives of the Environment Action Programme (EAP)
1.02 The goal of the Environment Action Programme are to improve the
provisioning of environmental serv:ces in india and to facilitate integration of
environmental considerations into development programmes. Keeping in view
these goals, the following objectives of the Environment Action Programme
(EAP) are laid down which are as under
a. assess the environment scene in India against the backdrop of the
changing economic policies and programmes;
b. review the current policies and programmes which address the
various environmental problems of the country;
c. identify the future direction and thrust of these policies and
programmes to establish priorities and outline a strategy for the
implementation of those priorities;.
d. identify program mes and projects for a sustained flow of investment
resources for improved provisioning of environmental services for
targetted to ensure their realisation of these concerns. Environmental
issues which have been for a long time part of IndIan thought and social
processes are reflected in the Constitution of the Republic of India
adopted in 1950. The Directive Principles of State Policy, an integral and
significant element of our democratic order contain provisions which
reflectthe commitment of the State to protectthe environment with regard
to forests and wildlife. The Directive Principles of State Policy enjoin
upon the citizens of India, the special responsibility to protect and
improve the environment. The roots of the growing trend towards popular
participation in our conservation and natural resource development
programme lie in this constitutional requirement. The foundations of the
present day organisational framework for environmental programmes in
India, go back to the 1970s with the establishment of the National
Committee of Environmental Planning and Coordination by Smt. Indira
Gandhi, former Prime Minister almost immediately after the historic
Stockholm Conference on Environment held in 1972. The Committee was
graduallly to evolve into a Department of Environment in 1980 and five
years later to a fulfledged Ministry of Environment and Forests (MOEF)
of the Government of India (GOI). The State Governments also followed
this example by establishing their own Departments of Environment to
address the rapidly increasing policy initiatives and programmes in the
environment and forests sectors.
1.05 The Ministry of Environment and Forests, India has wide ranging
responsibilities as the apex body within the Government responsible for
the subjects of environment, forests and wildlife. Apart from addressing
the issues of natural resources degradation induced by the growing
phenomenon of land, water and air pollution, the Ministry also undertakes
activities in the realm of conservation of natural resources through
programmes for the conservation and survey,of flora and fauna,
afforestation and regenerationofdegraded areas, impactassessment,
forest conservation, and research and environmental education and
information. The organisation chart at Appendix XII provides details of
the structure of this apex Ministry.
Policy Initiatives In Environment:
1.06 The Government has enunciated its policy in the form of pqlicy
statements on Forestry, on Abatement of Pollution, and also through the
comprehensive National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on
Conservation and Development. In addition, there are laws for the
protection of environment, the most well-known being the Wild Life
(Protection) Act, 1972, the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, and the
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986. Significant amendments have bean
made in 1991 to the Wild Life (Protection) Act, which include a provision
by which hunting of all species of wildlife for commerce or for pleasure
has been banned.
1.07 The Environment (Protection) Act sets out the parameters under
which the Ministry operates to formulate and carry out environment policy
at the national level. Underlying the policy statements is the recognition
of the prnciple that sffective management and control of natural resources
requires the support and participation of the local people.
1.08 The National Forest Policy, 1988, emphasizes the need to restore
the ecological balance and the conservation of the country's natural
heritage by preserving the remaining natural forests. This objective is
sought to be achieved through the prevention of soil erosion and
denudation in the catchment areas, the restriction of the growth of desert
areas, and the evolution of a system to meet the requirements of
fuelwood, fodder, nonwood forest products and small timber of the rural
and tribal population. The mandate of the National Afforestation and
Ecodevelopment Board for restoring green cover for ecological security
and provisioning of fuel and fodder resources, is a major programme
designed to achieve the aforesaid objective of the National Forest
Policy.
1.09 The network of sanctuaries, national parks, biosphere reserves
[D1
and other protected areas has been extended to cover about 4% of the
total land area of the country. The National Wildlife Action Plan lays
down the strategy and action programmes for wildlife conservation.
Further, the application of the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, ensures
that the diversion of forest land for non-forest use is subject to the
strictest scrutiny.
1.10 The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement of
Environment and Development, adopted in June, 1992, provides the
basis for the integration and internalisation of environmental
considerations in the policies and programmes of different sectors. It
also emphasises sustainable life styles and the proper management and
conservation of resources.
1.11 The Policy Statement of the Abatement of Pollution, 1992, states
the Government's commitment to prevent further deterioration of the
environment. The policy elements seek to shift the emphasis trom
defining the objectives for each problem area towards the actual
implementation, and the focus is on the long term. The Statement
recognizes that pollution particularly affects the poor, the complexities
are considerable given the number of industries, organisations and
government bodies involved. To achieve the objectives, maximum use
would be made of a mix of instruments including legislation and regulation,
fiscal incentives, voluntary agreements, educational programmes and
information campaigns.
1.12 The Government's National Housing Policy, 1988, the National
Water Policy, 1987 and the National Landuse Policy, 1988, recognise the
importance of maintaining the ecological balance. The Ministry of Urban
Development have approved 52 recommendations for an Urban Water
Supply & Sanitation Programme. These policy recommendations
underline, the principle of sustainability of water use and investments for
development of water resources. The prevalence of such perspectives
rooted in the concept of sustainable development in other wings of the
- Government is important to be taken note of.
The Eighth Five Year Plan and Sustainable Development:-
1.13 It is significant that the Eighth Five Year Plan was launched in
1992, the year which witnessed the historic Earth Summit held in Rio de
Janeiro. The goal of sustainable development is implicit in the Eighth
Plan Document which underlines the significance of ensuring coordinated
and integrated Governmental action for conserving nature and ensuring
sustainable use of natural resources through a participatory process.
The actual task of sustainable development hinges on the evolving
economic structure of India.
1.14 Unlike its predecessors, the Eighth Five Year Plan of India has
been framed against the back-drop ot the economic problems induced by
fiscal imbalances and balance of payment difficulties. A structural
adjustment process has been under way to correct the fiscal distortions
and to bring down the balance of payment deficit on the current account.
All the same, the Eighth Five Year Plan has the benefit of the positive
outcome of the Sixth and Seventh Five Year Plans which took the average
GNP growth rate from 3.5 % per annum to 5.5 % per annum, with growing
agricultural incomes, rising pe. capita consumption of food grains and
other essential commodities and declining capital-output ratios and of
populations under the poverty line. Taking a cue from these positive
features, the Eighth Five Year Plan has adopted an approach of setting
free the forces of growth and modemisation by judiciously harnessing
market mechanisms and limiting public investment to socially critical
areas. Accordingly, a process of economic liberalisation has been
initiated in the last two years. Industrial licencing has been abolished
except fora select group of 18 industries, the Monopolies and Restrictive
Trade Practices Act (MRTPA) has been amended to relax entry control on
large industries, the scope of foreign equity participation has been
increased, a new trade policy with accent on a liberalised trade regime
based on negative list of imnports/exports is in place, the stock markets
9i
have also been galvanised mainly by a relaxed capital issues regime and
tinally a programme of financial sector reforms is also under way to de-
regulate the banking and financial services sector for effective service,
improved profitability and capital adequacy.
1.15 These changes in industrial and trade policies have fundamental
implications on the environment. The Eighth Five Year Plan lays emphasis
on the manufacturing sector as the fulcrum of industrial growth. The
process of industrial/trade de-regulation initiated in the plan period is
bound to promote rapid growth of infrastructure and industries such as
power and coal, and services like transport and communications besides
other capital goods and consumer based industrial units, having high
market linkage - domestic or overseas. The impact on pollution and
generation of wastes would be considerable as the process of
industrialisation accelerates. Another facet of the new economic policy
is the growing significance of exports for the Indian economy in the
coming decade. Engineering goods, leather, textiles and select group of
chemical industries are bound to assume significance on account of their
strong export linkage. At the same time, the ability of these industries to
penetrate the developed export markets of the General Currency Area
(GCA) will depend upon the quality standards prescribed for these
markets under ISO 9000, etc. Quality standards on merchandise are
closely related to environmental factors, since products imported by
these markets ought to be environmentally friendly both in terms of
processes and end use. Therefore, environmental programmes would
necessitate qualitatively different interventions for pollution control and
prevention.
1.16 While the market forces are being encouraged through such a
programme of economic liberalisation, the focus of Government
programmes and public investments would entirely be in the social sector
with human development as the ultimate goal. A mass movement to
contain population growth is to be generated. Simultaneously, in order to
give further impetus to the poverty alleviation programme, the Eighth
Five Year Plan proposes to undertake a substantial employment
generation effort through programmes and projects for diversification of
agriculture, wasteland development, forestry, rural non-farm sector, rural
infrastructure and housing and services. It is apparent that the Eighth
Plan strategy of employment generation is based predominantly on
natural resource development programmes and herein lies the
environmental significance of this strategy for poverty alleviation.
1.17 While the Eighth Five Year Plan seeks to increase irrigation and
power facilities in the country and promote agriculture on a commercial
EDlI
basis, by extending the coverage of high yielding varieties of cash and
food crops, the paucity of public investment resources necessitates
measures for energy conservation and irrigation efficiency. This would
mean that conservation programmes in the sectors of soil and water need
further emphasis. The proposed National Health Programme to be
undertaken in the Eighth Five Year Plan has significant spinoffs. A
programme of health care delivery based on popular participation with
focus on disease prevention and health promotion is envisaged, in order
to realise the overall goal of THealth for All by 2000 A.D. A concomitant
of this strategy is the provision of clean drinking water and sanitation
facilities under the Rajiv Gandhi Drinking Water Mission which is to be
strengthened further to cover the no source problem villages numbering
2824 and the partially covered villages/hamlets. This programme for
providing clean drinking water cannot be successful without
complementary elforts to conserve moisture through watershed
development, catchment area treatment, and integrated schemes for
wasteland development including afforestation etc. The other facet of the
National Health Programme namely, the emphasis on traditional systems
of preventive medicine in the National Health Plan makes it all the more
necessary to focus attention on conservation of fragile and critical
ecosystem including forests, mangroves, wetlands, coral reefs and
El
mountain ecosystems which have been sites of unique biodiversity and
have been supply sources of traditional biomaterials used for medicinal
purposes.
1.18 The preventive strategy for health which is the third plank of the
National Health Programme necessitates tackling urban environmental
issues on a war-footing and remediation and safe disposal of hazardous
wastes which are injurious to human health. The social priorities envisaged
in the eighth Five Year Plan have a different implication on our
environmental programmes. The fact that the Eighth Five Year Plan
proposes people's involvement in the process of nation building and a
participatory planning framework and a decentralised approach to planni ng
through a system of Panchayati Raj and Nagar-Palika (local self-
Governments of urban cities/towns) institutions given national priority in
the wake of the recent 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of
India necessitates a systematic effort for developing human resources at
the grassroot level in the direction of sustainable development.
1.19 It is against the backdrop of the situation described above that the
following top priority areas are being focussed upon in the Environment
Action Programme:-
a. conservation and sustainable utilization of biodiversity in selected
eco-systems including forests, mangroves, wetlands, coral reefs,
mountain ecosystems;
b. afforestation, waste lands development and conservation of soil
and moisture and ensuring that water sources are not polluted;
C. control of industrial and related pollution with an accent on the
reduction andlor management of wastes, particularly hazardous
wastes;
d. improving access to clean technologies;
e. tackling urban environmental issues;
f. strengthening scientific understanding of environmental issues, as
well as structures.for training at different levels, orientation and
creating environmental awareness, resources assessment, water
management problems etc.; and
9. an alternative energy plan.
Participation and ownership of India's Environment Action
Programme (EAP)
1.20 In line with the Government of India's thinking on the issue of
popular participation for conservation and sustainable development, the
14
Environment Action Programme process adopted a decentralised system
of generating information and perspectives. Consistent with the open
approach of the EAP. the Ministry of Environment and Forests, the nodal
agency for conducting the EAP exercise, constituted an EAP
Implementation Committee comprising the Ministries and Departments of
the Govemment of India concerned with the different sectoral issues to
be addressed in the proposed Environment Action Programme. The task
of drawing up sectoral reports was also decentralised and assigned to
non-governmental institutes of academic excellence. The research
institutions involved and the topics assigned to them are as under
Name of Institute Sector
Bombay Natural History - Conservation of
Society. Bombay wetands. coral rets.
mangroves.
Indian Institute of Forest - Forestry.
Managowent. Bhopal.
Indian Institute of Public - InstitutIonal Structures for
Administration. New Delhi. Environmentai Management
- Environment Education
- BlodivertlrylWldllfe
Conservation.
Indian Institute of - Environment Impact
Technology. Bombay. Assessment
Indira Gandhi Institute of - Natural Resources
Development Research. Accounting.
Bombay.
!Aadras Institute of Develop- - Urban Environmental
ment Studias, Madras. Nanagementn
- Strategy for Improvement
of Tank Irrigation.
National Environmental - Clean Technologies.
Engineering Research
Institute. Nagpur. - Water Ouality.
Tata Energy Research - Alternaive Energy
InstiMne. New DelhL Action Plan.
1.21 In the meetings of the EAP Implementation Committee, these
research institutions were also invited to participate, in order to sensitise
them to policies and programmes of the Government of India in the
various sectors. The terms of reference for conducting various sectoral
studies were also drawn up on a mutually agreed basis. Based on the
first phase of sectoral reports, prepared by these institutions, a draft
interim EAP document was prepared in May, 1992, circulated to the
different Ministries of the Govemment of India (GOI) and others and
finalised by November, 1992. The interim document gave an overview of
the Environmental Policies and Programmes and briefly summed up the
critical issues in the areas of Environment Impact Assessment, Natural
Resources Accounting, Cleaner Technologies for Industrial Production,
Energy Action Plan, Management of Water Quality, Human Resource
Development, Environmental Education, Forestry besides the specific
concerns of urban enviro-mental management and conservation of
wetlands.
1.22 Further processes were on, to refine the sectoral reports and
clearly prioritise areas for intensive focus in the coming decade.
Discussions with the concerned sectoral Ministries and the research
institutions involved in the exercise resulted in the identification of the
seven critical areas mentioned at the outset. A National Workshop on
Environment Action Programme was convened in New Delhi on 28-29
September, 1993 to discuss the EAP process in India in the light of the
exercises already conducted. .This Workshop was attended by nearly 35
non-governmental voluntary organisations and experts whose views
have now been considered and incorporated in this document. It is
noteworthy that the seven broad priority areas have been endorsed by
the participants of this Workshop, though, some of them had recorded
their views on the manner in which these priority areas have to be
addressed. A draft Environment Action Programme (EAP) document was
subsequently drawn up and submitted for Inter-Ministerial discussions.
This document has been finalised also after incorporating inter-ministerial
suggestions and modifications.
1.23 -The EAP is a continuing process. Hence, the areas identified in this
document are not final or comprehensive. It does not take care of all the
forward and backward linkages in many developmental sectors, including
the socio-economic networks which result in poverty alleviation and
better human resources development as these are better covered in the
Eighth Five Year Plan Document itself. As the programmes identified in
this document get underway, newer and more complex problems may
arise which require attention. The global environmental issues of climate
change, biodiversity, desertification, international waters and the
protection of the ozone layer will also be systematically incorporated as
E
the present set of priority areas get implemented. With the growing
emphasis on participatory systems of natural resources management,
structures for decentralised management of natural resources wDuld be
operationalised drawing strength from the 73rd and 74th Amendment to
the Indian Constitution for establishing Panchayati Raj and Nagar Palika
Institutions as also the successful initiative of the Ministry of Environment
and Forests for establishing Joint Forest Management Structures for
conservation, development and management of forest lands in various
States and Union Territories of India.
Future Course of Development
1.24 The Environment Action Programme being a dynamic process
would necessitate careful and concerted direction and continuing
investigations and research into sectoral areas which have been prioritised
or require to be so. The national institutes which were commissioned to
do sectoral studies as mentioned earlier, have offered valuable insights
on the nature of problems in the sectoral areas. However these insights
need to be extended and refined further as the EAP process evolves..
Appendices I to IX and Xl, which are extracts of the sectoral studies
conducted by these institutes, provide a glimpse of the various problems
in different sectors which need further analysis and consideration from
18
the point of view of the seven priority areas identified in this document.
The EAP Implementation Committee already set up for drawing up the
programme will continue to operate though for new functions of guiding
further studies by the institutes mentioned and for monitoring and direction
of programmes and projects. The identified institutes would continue
with their research with special focus on improving upon the existing data
base, natural resource accounting system, and structures for strengthening
environment impact assessment and information. This will be in addition
to providing evaluation reports on the progress of the EAP. The EAP
being coterminus with the Eighth Five Year Plan of India would be
comprehensively reviewed both on a Governmental and Non-
Governmental fora in 1996, a year before the Eighth Five Year Plan
concludes. The perspectives/results of these review would be significant.
for internalising the Environment Action Programme in the forthcoming
and future Five Year Plans.
STATUS OF THE ENVIRONMENT
2 STATUS 0f THE ENVIRONMENT
2.01 The establishment of a diversified. industrial structure, based on a
unique combination of heavy and small-scale industries and the growing
urban and rural population in India has produced its pressures on air,
water and land resources. These pressures are reflected in the growing
incidence of air and water pollution. The fact that the Factories Act of
1948 with its accent on occupational and civic safety had to be
supplemented by the more specialised Water (Prevention and Control of
Pollution) Act, 1974 and the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution Act
(1981) and much later the Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 is an
unmistakable sign of the impact of pollution on air and water resources.
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) constituted under the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 in September, 1974 has
inventorised the pollution sources, and assessed the air and water
pollution potential on terms of industries, river basins and geographical
areas.
2.02 Coming to the scenario of air and water quality in India it is seen
that the pollution load in respect of air is of a relatively high order in the
metropolitan cities of Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras. The CPCB
which conducted ambient air quality monitoring of Delhi has observed
E!i
relatively high frequency of suspended particulate matter, SO2, NO2 and
heavy metals in particulate matter in the air in Delhi. The CPCB studies
also indicate that the periods of April to June and from mid-October to
March are environmentally critical for Delhi from the point of view of air
pollution. The state of ambient air quality in the 15 major cities of India
including Delhi during the year 1990, is summed up in Table 1.
2.03 In non-metropolitan areas, the CPCB has identified 22 problem
zones in India which are most prone to industrial pollution in the country.
These are Korba in Madhya Pradesh, Talcher in Orissa, Visakapatanam
in Andhra Pradesh, Manali in Tamil Nadu, Udyogamandalam in Kerala,
Chembur in Maharashtra and Najafgarh in De;hi, Dhanbad in Bihar and
Durgapur in West Bengal.
2.04 The pollution problems of small towns in India basically relate to
water. A survey undertaken by the CPCB in respect of 241 Class II Towns
in 17 States of India indicates that on an average, 90% of the water
supplied is polluted. Only 1.6% of the 'polluted', wastewater gets
treated.Table 2 sums up the salient findings in this regard.
2.05 Rivers in India are also faced with increasing water quality
deterioration. The details of the grossly polluted stretches of six major
rivers in India have been captured on Table 3 along with the sources,
INDUSTRIES-AIR POLLUTION
PESTICIDES RUNOFF
nature and load pollution. It is howeverworthy of note from Table 3 that
while the Godavari, Krishna and Indus rivers owe their pollution load
predominantly to industrial activities, the other rivers have both municipal/
domestic and industrial wastes as pollution sources. Indeed, according
to the study of water pollution in the Ganga basin (which forms the focus
of the major Ganga Action Plan of India) it is estimated that 3/4th by
volume of the waste water generated is from Municipal sources, 88% of
the municipal sewage being from Class I cities.
2.06 In respect of different industries, air and water pollution problems
are critical in respect of fertilisers, paper and pulp, sugar and thermal
power plants/industries. The status of air and water pollution by selected
highly polluting categories of Industries in India in 1989-90 are depicted
in Fig 1 and 2 respectively. As can be seen, while the fertilizer industries
were defaulters in meeting air pollution standards, sugar and pulp and
paper formed the major defaulters in the matter of non-compliance with
minimum in water/liquid effluent standards. This picture is changing with
the enforcement of standards and increasing adoption of pollution control
technologies by industrial units coming under the critically poliuting
categories
2.07 The incidencp of noise pollution has been on the rise especially in
Il
big cities of India such as Delhi. Ambient noise levels in 25 different
locations comprising sensitive, residential, commercial, and traffic areas
of Delhi during May-June, 1989 were far in excess of the permissible
standards laid down for noise levels. The noise levels for industrial units
were well below the standards of 75 dB.
2.08 The rapid growth of chemical, petro-chemicals, fertilizer and
engineering industries in India from the Second Five Year Plan has
increased the incidence of use of toxic, flammable and explosive chemicals
in India. The Bhopal Gas tragedy has brought out the significance of
scientific safe and regulated manufacture, storage and import of
hazardous/toxic chemicals. The Hazardous Wastes (Management and
Handling) Rules, 1989 notified in 1989 cover 18 types of hazardous
wastes while the Manufacture, storage and import of Hazardous Chemical
Rules, 1989 list 434 toxic flammable and explosive chemicals for careful
regulation. Yetthere have been instances of industrial accidents such as
the explosion atthe IPCL Nagathone gas cracker. Of the 21 petrochemicals
(other than polymers and synthetic fibres) identified for vigorous growth
by 2000 A.D. Ethylene Oxide, Phenol, Acetone, Benzene and Toluene
are listed as hazardous chemicals in Part II of Schedule I of the
Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989.
The task of regulating these chemicals is formidable. There is also bound
to be a spurt in the use of Hydrogen Cyanide, Carbon di Sulphide, Thionyl
Chloride, Phosgene, Ammonia, Chlorine, Oleum and Hydrogen Fluoride.
2.09 Flyash, phospho-gypsum, andiron and steel slags are the principal
forms of solid wastes generated in India. It is estimated that 35 to 40
million tonnes of flyash is generated annually by India's thermal power
plants of which only 2% to 3% is now being utilized. The growing capacity
of the fertilizer, iron and steel industries has also progressively increased
the output of phospo-gypsum and slag wastes.
2.10 The description of the various forms and sources of air and water
pollution and solid waste generation all indicate the somewhat precarious
environmental health of the country not conforming with ambient air/
noise and water quality standards. There are also effects on land and soil
due to the increase in inorganic compounds and leaching and which also
has effects on ground water resources. In general the following
observations emerge regarding fresh water, coastal water and air quality
in India:
Fresh Water Quality In Rivers
2.11 An analysis of the data collected from the 450 surface and
groundwater quality sampling locations during the year 1990 were
analysed. Observations emerging from the analyses are as follows
j
water quality data monitored under the Ganga Action Plan denotes
total coliform as the critical parameter at all of the four locations in
West Bengal. In Bihar, the same observation held for Patna and
Buxar. In Uttar Pradesh, total coliform was observed to be critical
at Kannauj, Kanpur, Allahabad and at Rasulabad and Varanasi;
Bio-chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) was observed to be critical
at the Kanpur, Allahabad and Varanasi stretches of the Ganga
river;
total coliform was found to be critical in select segments of the
Narmada, Mahi and Tapti rivers;
total coliform was found to be critical at all locations of the
Subarnarekha, Tambiraparani and Damanganga rivers;
high levels of BOD were observed at Ludhiana and Jalandhar in
Satluj (Punjab), downstream of Panposh in Brahmani, downstream
of Nasik in Godavari. and at Sirumugai in Cauvery. However, DO
at all locations was above 4 mg/1; and
there is an increased concentration of nitrate ,n the ground water
in the vicinity of urban centres which renders it unfit for drinking.
Also because of over pumping of ground water,the water levels i.
the sub-soil have diminished.
Coastal Water Quality
2.12 Coastal and estuarine water resources in india depict the following
quality characterstics:-
an exceptionally high concentration of lead and cadmium, 820 ug/
1 and 336 ugJ1 respectively, were observed in Thane creek of
Bombay coast, while the mercury concentration is 0778 ug/1. The
high levels of pollution particularly in Thane creek and Mahim
creek are caused by the discharge of huge quantities domestic and
industrial wastes. A major portion of the waste is released in Ulhas
river and Bassein creek also. Sediment along the creeks and near-
the-shore stations showed significant concentration of lead;
the Cochin region of the Kerala coast (South West Coastal Zones
of India) is found to be most affected by petroleum hydrocarbons.
During the pre-monsoon period, a concentration of 162 ug'1 was
recorded in the estuarine area, while in the coastal area, the
concentration recorded was 49 ug/1. This has been mainly due to
the operation of oil tankers as well as the movement of mechanised
fishing vessels. Further, it was also observel that the concentrat.on
of nutrients is high in the estuarine part! afid that in the coastal &
offshore regions, being in descending orcer except for a few
observktions; and
-TFbi
along the coasts of West Be ngal & Orissa, the coastal water quality
remains almost stable. However, the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) was
found near critical level in some localised area. Lead, cadmium
and mercury were found in very low concentrations in the ambient
water. The sediment samples were rich in metals, particularly
lead.
Air Quality Data Analysis
2.13 Statistical analyses of air quality data Dertaining to 1990 for
various cities/towns covered bythe National Ambient AirQuality Monitoring
Stations (NAAQM) as presented in Tables 4 & 5 and the following are the
major observations:
except forthe NAAQM location at Naskarpara Pump House, Howrah,
the sulphur dioxide concentration at all other locations were within
the stipulated air quality standards;
except for the NAAQM location at Veterinary Hospital, Kota, the
nitrogen dioxide concentration at all other locations were within the
stipulated air quality standard;
for sulphus dioxide, at 1 1 NAAQM locations in Ahmedabad, Bombay,
Madras, Gajraula and !Howrah, the violations over the 24-hourly
average standards were in the range of 5 percent. At locations in
Madras, Calcutta and Howrah, the range of violations were 5-10
percent. Only Naskarpara Pump House in Howrah is the location
where Sulphur Dioxide (19%) violated the 24-hourly average
standard by more than 10%; and
the air component of the environmenit is degraded in very few
locations. In metropoliton cities, exhaust from automobiles cause
pollution in high-traffic density areas. To counter this problem, it
is considered that strict standards for exhausts need to be laid
down. Accordingly, such standards for 1995 and 2000 AD have
been evolved. Emissions from industries are sought to becountered
in a manner similar to wastewater discharge. Viewed in relative
terms, there has been a qualitative improvement in water quality in
the River Ganga, particularly in certain stretches. There are also
reasons to suppose that the present status of air and water quality
represents an improvement compared to the situation two years
ago. For instance, the pollution control status of firms drawn f rom
17 categories of industries in 21 States and Union Territories
indicate that for all categories there has been a discernible rise in
the number of units complying with the MINAS (Minimum National
Standards) for water/air pollution, December, 1 991 and February,
1993 mainly due to effective implementation of the existing
regulatory and fiscal regimes (Fig. 3).
NATURAL RESOURCES
3 NATURAk RESOURCES
3.01 With a geographical area, spanning 329 million hectares, India is
the seventh largest country in the world in terms of landmass. The
systems and types of land use have been conditioned by climatic
conditions, primarily expressed in terms of precipitation/rainfall received
in various parts of the country. Rainfall in India is unequally distributed
in space. The mean annual rainfall ranges from less than 100 mm in parts
of the Rajasthan desert to more than 4000 mm in the Western Ghats
portions of South West India and the North eastern parts of the country.
The intra-annual distribution of precipitation is also uncertain and
seasonally skewed. The bulk of rainfall is received during the South-west
monsoon season (from June to September). However, even durng this
season there are periodic dry spells/droughts which are frequent in the
arid and semi-arid zones of the country covering the States of Rajasthan,
Gujarat, portions of Madhya Pradesh and the States of Maharashtra,
Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh located in the Deccan area. Consequently,
the crop yields of the rainfed sorghum-millet belt of arid and semi-arid
India are subjected to periodic fluctuations.
3.02 The spatial diference in availability of precipitation is reflected in
Ui
the relative differences in the amounts of unit area runoffs from the
various river basins of India both in intra and inter annual terms. The
Central Water Commission (1988) places the average annual natural
runoff available to India at 1880 billion cubic metres. The water storage
structures created or under construction are able to store only 13.5% of
the mean annual runnoff. Coming to groundwater resources, the estimate
is that the replenishable groundwater resource in India( excluding the
North-East) is 420 8CM/year of which 35-7 BCM/year is utilisable for
irrigation against actual utilisation of only 106 BCM/year.
3.03 The Unequal distribution of precipitation and water resources have
conditioned agricultural cropping systems and systems of farming, though
'irrigation' has successfully transformed the water-short areas of Punjab,
Haryana and Westem Uttar Pradesh into the food bowls of India.. Indeed
there are sufficient indications that the agriculture frontier has stopped
expanding. This is evident from the fact of net areas sown having
increasedfrom 119 million ha. in 1950-51 to 140 million ha. andstabilised
at that level. (Table 6) In any case, an expanding agricultural frontier was
not essentially environmentally conducive, since extension of cultivation
to marginal lands had produced in its wake, problems of soil and water
erosion. When this fact is related to the increase that has occured in the
agricultural area subjected -to double/multiple cropping ( the area of
agricultural land sown more than once Increased from 25,524000 ha.in
1971 to 36,770000 ha. in 1986-87), and the Increase in food grain
production by nearly 42 million tonnes in the period 1970-71 to 1985-86,
it can be concluded that agriculture production in India Is now based on
the intensive margin i.e. modern technologies of production initiated
during the Green Revolution of the late 1 960s. But the spatial width oi the
intensive agricul;iral operations is narrow since, the Green Revolution
has been evident rnainly in the north-western portions of India and
portions of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu in south India.
3.04 India is also endowed with large areas of non-agricultural/non-
forest land. These include common grass lands and pastures, lands
occupied by inland water regimes and fallow lands. These lands have
been the sources of fuelwood and fodder for the large population of
people and livestock in India.
Forests
3.05 India has a very diverse forest vegetation ranging from the temperate
vegetation in the Himalayas to the moist Evergreen forests in North East,
the Western Coast and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands. The forest cover
of the country, as perthe lastest assessment of the Forest Survey of India
is 63.591 m.ha. comprising 19.44 % of India's geographical area. However,
the areas recorded as forests are higher and stand at 75.18 m. ha. The
forests of Indiacan be divided Into 16 majorgroups comprising 221 types.
tropical deciduous forests form the major percentage of forest cover in
India (37% o.f total forest cover) followed by tropical dry deciduous forest
(28.6%). The unique tropical wet evergreen forests comprise only 8% of
the total forest cover. Of the total area of 63.91 million ha., dense forests
( crown density above 40%) account.for only 38.50 m. ha. There is no
tree cover over 11.27 m.ha. officially recorded as forest areas, while
another 25.4 mha of forests are understocked. About 52.8% of forests do
not have adequate regeneration. The percapitaforestarea hasdecreased
from 0.20 ha. in 1951 to 0.1 1 ha. in 1981. India's forest wealth as with the
case of other natural resources varies both in quantitative and qualitative
forms.
3.06 Apart from natural forests, man-made forests are aiso expanding
due to the afforestation programmes initiatnd by the Government. The
land areas afforested increased from 0.52 lakh ha. in the First Five Year
Plan to 177.77 lakh ha. in 1970-71. Despite this progress in afforestation,
the target of attaining 33 % land area under forest cover as laid down in
the National Forest Policy 1988, appears to be a remote goal at the
moment. The reasons are the tendency towards the deforestation and
diversion of forest land for non-forestry purposes,the rising demands for
luelwood and fodder, the increasing incidence of illicit felling, and forest
fires. According to an estimate, the total fuelwood removal from forest,
both authorised, and unauthorised is more than 235 million cu. ms. as
againstthe sustainable level of production of only 48 million cu.m., which
is incidentally placed as the annual fuelwood demand in India. Similarly,
the incidence of grazing in forests for meeting the fodder needs of the
large livestock population in India is another crucial problem. According
to the Forest Survey of India, forest area affected by fire range from 33%
in West Bengal to 99% in Manipur. Only 14 States have been covered in
these estimates.
3.07 On the positive side had the regulatory regime and legal framework
forforest conservation in India not been in place, the trend of deforestation
would have been more severe by now. With the passage of the Forest
Conservation Act, 1980, the annual rate of diversion of forest land for
non-forestry purposes has come down to 16000 ha. annually as compared
to 0.15 m.ha. in the pre-1980 period. On the other hand the increase in
tree cover through development of forest plantations and natural
regeneration programmes under wasteland development schemes in the
last decade, has increased the green cover roughly at about 1.8 million
hectares per annum, a process which needs to be accelerated.
i
Blodiversity
3.08 India is uniquely rich in all aspects of bio-diversity including
ecosystem, species and genetic bio-diversity. For any one country in the
world, it has perhaps the largest array of environmental situations by
virtue of its tropical location, varied-physical features and climatic types.
India has the widest variety of biomes, an attribute further enhanced by
the meeting of three major biogeographic realms, namely Indo-Malaya
(the richest in the world), the Eurasian and the Afro-tropical. India owes
its unique biodiversity to this unmatched interspersion of biogeographic
and environmental values. It is estimated that over 75,000 species of
fauna and 45,000 of flora are found in India.
3.09 According to a recent classification done by the Wildlife Institute of
India, the country has 10 biogeographic zones i.e. Trans-Himalayan;
Himalayan; Indian Desert; Semi-arid; Westem Ghats; Deccan Peninsula;
Gangetic Plain; North-east India; Islands; Coasts.
3.10 The trans-himalayan region with its sparse vegetation has the
richest wild sheep and goat community in the world. The snow leopard
(Panthera uncia) is found here, as is the migratory Blacknecked Crane
(Grus nigricollis). The Himalaya, the highest mountain range in the
world, is located at the boundary of many biogeographical regions and is
therefore one of the richest areas of India in terms of habitat and species
diversity. In the north-west isthe desert region with extensive grasslands.
The Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps), a highly endangered bird,
is found here. Adjoining the desert is the semi-arid region, a transitional
zone between the desert and the denser forests of the Western Ghats.
Beyond the Ghats is the Deccan plateau, which is also a semi-arid region
lying in the rain shadow: of the Western Ghats.
3.11 In the north is the Gangetic plain extending up to the Himalayan
foothills. North-east India is one of the richest regions of biodiversity in
the country. It has several species of orchids, bamboos, ferns and other
plants. This region is also one of the early centres of domestication of
cultivated plants such as banana, mango, citrus and jute.
3.12 India has two majorgroups of islands, Lakshadweep in the Arabian
Sea, and Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. The
Andaman and Nicobar Islands have some of the best-preserved evergreen
forests of India. Several species of plants and animals are endemic to
these Islands. India has a very long coastline extending over 5,500 kms.
Mangrove vegetation is characteristic of the estuarine tracts along the
coast which sustain rich biological diversity. The total area of mangroves
in India is approximately 6700 sq. kms. which comprises about 7% of the
world's total mangrove area and harbours 59 species of 41 general
belonging to different countries. India Is also rich In coral reefs. Major
reef formations In Indian seas occur at the Gulf of Mannar, Palk Bay, Gulf
of Kutch, the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep. With
the exception of the Lakshadweep reefs which are atolls, others are of the
fringing type. Submerged banks with coral growth are also known from
the Arabian sea. The threat to mangroves and coral reefs assume the
form of biotic pressures such as fishing, landuse changes in surrounding
areas and pollution of waters etc.
3.13 Indian wetlands which represent various geographical regions dot
the cold arid zones of Ladakh, warm arid zones of Rajasthan, tropical
monsoonic Central !ndia, wet north eastem region, wet southern Peninsula
and the coastal wetlands. There are around 17 million hectares of
wetlands in the country excluding paddy fields. In India the area under
natural wetlands is 1450871 ha. and under man-made wetlands is around
2589266 ha. which is increasing every year. According to estimates, only
28% of the area of 93 important wetlands in India is undertotal protection
which amounts to 53 sites out oi the 93 sites. This number does not
include a vast number of small, scattered aquatic habitats throughout the
country. These include city tanks, rural irrigation water bodies, lagoons,
.~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .
SIBERIANCRANE FEEDING IN BHARATPURWETLAND
THESUNDERBANSMANGROVES
coastline habitats and other sensitive wetland habitats of blodiversity
importance. Out of the 85 wetland sites of International importance in the
country, 45% are subjected to moderate or high threat.
3.14 The problems faced by Indian wetlands relate to weed Infestation,
siltation, pressures of agriculture and encroachments ot wetlands,
chemical and organic pollution and eutrophication besides, conversion
of wetlands for industrialisation, urbanisation and habitation.
Species Diversity
3.15 The Zoological Survey of India, the Botanical Survey of India and
the Forest Survey of India study and document the plant and animal
diversity of the country. Of the estimated 45,000 plant species, about
15,000 species of flowering plants have been described. Estimates of
other plant taxa include 5,000 species of algae, 1,600 of lichens, 20,000
of fungi, 2,700 of bryophytes and 600 of pteridophytes. There are about
75,000 species of animals including 50,000 insects, 4,000 molluscs,
2,000 fishes, 140 amphibians, 420 reptiles, 1,200 birds and 340 mammals,
and other invertebrates. A very large number of the species described
are endemic to India. Among the larger animals 79 species of mammals,
44 of birds, 15 of reptiles, and three of amphibians are threatened.
Nearly 1,500 plant species are considered endangered.
3.16 The main strategy for the conservation of species is the protection
of viable habitats in representative ecosystems. In addition, specific
measures have been taken to prevent poaching and trade in wildlife
products. Special steps to check illegal trade In ivory, rhino ,sorns, lurs,
srins, musk and peacock feathers have also been taken: India is also a
signatory to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
of wild fauna and flora (CITES).
3.17 Certain species have been identified as needing a concerted and
specifically directed protection effort. Projects have been initiated such as.
Project Tiger, 'Save the Barasingha' campaign, and more recently a
project on the Asiatic Elephant. A citrus sanctuary has been set up in
Meghalaya. These programmes, though focussed on single species, have
a wider impact as they conserve habitats and a variety of other species.
3.18 Ex situ conservation is another thrust in con,servation efforts. The
Indian Botanical Garden in Howrah (West Bengal) is over 200 years old.
Other important botanical gardens include those in Bangalore and Lucknow.
Whereas zoological parks have been looked upon essentially as centres
for education 2nd recreation, they have also played an important role in
the conservation of species such as the Manipur Thamin Deer (Cerus eldi
eldi) and the Whitewinged Wood Duck (Cairina scutulata). Notable
THEINDIANONEHORNED RHINO
examples of successful captive breeding are those of Gangetic Gharian
(Gavialis gangeticus), turtles and the white tiger.
Genetic Diversity
3.19 A great amount of research needs to be undertaken on the
conservation of genetic diversity in India. Sanctuaries and national parks
have isolated populations of wild animals thereby decreasing chances of
one group breeding with another. Experiments are underway in creating
corridors between parks and integrating different parks into larger
protected zones in order to broaden the genetic base.
3.20 India has a long tradition of breeding domestic animals for specific
qualities. These include cattle, goats, pigs and sheep, as well as horses
and pigeons for sport. With the focus on increasing milk yields though
cross-breeding, some of the original cattle breeds are in danger of
becoming extinct. Efforts for the maintenance of pure breeds of native
animals needs to be considerably strengthened. A good deal of attention
has been paid to the genetic conservation of domesticated plants. Both
in situ and ex situ conservation methods have been put into practice.
However, as in the case of cattle, hybrid varieties of crops are rapidly
replacing the lanid races. Out of an estimated 50,000 varieties of rice in
India, the country may be dependent on just 300 in the next decade.
3.21 Numerous locally adapted varieties which performed well under
low or no Input conditions are being replaced by a few high yielding
strains dependent on large quantities of inputs. Such replacement, in
large contiguous areas, presents the danger of the spread of serious
diseases which can wipe out entire crops.
3.22 Ex situ collection and preservation of genetic resources is done
through the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New
Delhi, for wild relatives of crop plants, the National Bureau of Animal
Genetic Resources at Karnal in Haryana, for domesticated animals, and
the National Bureau ot Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow. The NBPGR
is the nodal agency fcr.providing germplasm on request to scientific and
research insitutions both within and outside India. India is also a
signatory to the Global convention for conservation of bio-diversity.
There isa needto intensify in-situ and ex-situconservation of biodiversity
and for codifying ethnoknowledge.
Degraded Lands
3.23 One of the major problems confronting India is the problem of land
degradation which has affected 174 m.ha. comprising agricultural, non-
agricultural lands and forests. Since the establishment of the National
Wastelands Development Board in 1985, it has been possible to ensure
I . - . i~~~4
-~wa ..--:
ROYALBENGALTIGER
WILDASS
treatment for 40 m.ha of degraded lands in the country affected by water
logging (8.53 m.ha.) ravine and guilled lands (3.97 m.ha.) saline and
sodic lands (9 m.ha.).
Marine Resources
3.24 The country is rich in marine food resources including fish. It is
estimated that the continental shelf alone has an area of 0.44 m.sq.kms.
with an estimated production potential of 4.5 m. tonnes of marine produce
per year. The present harvest of marine resources from depths up to 40
fathoms is around 1.75 m. tonnes.
Minerals and Energy Resources
3.25 India is rich in both renewable and non-renewable mineral resources
and there have been sustained effortsfortheirdiscovery and exploration.
From an economic point of view iron ore, copper, lead, zinc and gold are
the principal minerals. Iron Ore is a major foreign exchange earner for
India. also India has gradually evolved as an exporter of aluminium and
has achieved near self-sufficiency in zinc. The entire requirement of
nickel is presently being imported. There are certain constraints with
regard to mineral resources in India - such as low quality copperdeposits.
The present production of coal in India is 229 million tonnes (1 991-92).
A target of 308 m.tonnes has been fixed for 1996-97. Indian coal also
suffers from quality problems mainly because of the high ash content of
coking coal (22% as against a stipulated 17% for steel plants), oversized
coal and presence of extraneous matter in supplies to power plants and
inadequate availability of high grade coal for industries.
3.26 In respect of energy sources, hydra carbons have developed a
major energy source in recent years. India has about 0.04% of the world's
proven resources of hydro carbons. However, the established geological
reserves amount to 5.32 billion tonnes only. With the current level of oil
production which fell from a peak level of 34.09 million tone in 1990 to
28.46 m. tones in 1992-93, India's efforts for attaining self sufficiency in
hydro carbons suffered a set back. Though our natural gas potential was
59.65 billion cu. mt. during the 7th Five Year Plan, actual utilisation was
only 40.41 billion cu. mt. due to the balance being flared. It is estimated
that the lossto the economy on account of flaring of natural gas is Rupees
1500 crores per year.
INDIA'S LEGAL AND
ORGANISATIONAL
FRAMEWORK FOR
ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT
NDI AIS LIEGAL AN D
ORGANISNIONAI FR AEWORK
FOR ENVIRONMEMT MtIAGEMENiT
4.01 The Directive Principles of State Policy of the Indian Constitution,
provides in clear and unambigous terms, the State's commitment to
protect the environment. Article 48-A of the Directive Principles states:
OThe State shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment
and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country."
4.02 Environmental protection is also enshrined as a Fundamental Duty
of the Citizen of India. Article 51-A (g) mentions that it shall be the duty
of every citizen of India "to protect and improve the natural environment,
includirfg, forests, lakes, rivers and wildlife, and to have compassion for
living creatures:" The Constitution 73rd Amendment Act of 1992 on
Panchayats which adds a Eleventh Schedule to the Constitution has 8
entries (viz. 2,3,6,7,11,12,15 & 29) which are linked to environmental
protection and conservation. The functions assigned to Panchayats
include soil conservation, water management, watershed development,
social and farm forestry, drinking water, fuel and fodder, non-conventional
energy sources and maintenance of community assets which are significant
from the environmental inanagement point of view. Entry 8 of the 12th
Schedule added to the Constitution by the 74th Amendment Act, 1992 for
constitution of Urban Local-Bodies assigns the function of "Protection of
Environment and Promotion of Ecological Eftects" to urban local bodies.
4.03 These Constitutional provisions have been given effect through
the "regulatory' environmental protection laws in India exemplified in the
umbrella Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and the more specific Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 and Air (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 to specifically regulate the problem of air
and water pollution. Among the specific natural resources protection
acts are the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 and Wildlife (Prevention)
Act, 1972 extended to cover Biosphere Resourcces and the Hazardous
Wastes (Management & Handling) Rules, 1989, Manufacture, Storage &
Import of Hazardous Chemical Rules, 1989, Manufacture, Use, Import,
Export and Storage of Hazardous Micro-Organisms and Genetically
Engineered Organism or Cell Rules, 1989 to regulate storage, use, trade,
transport and disposal of hazardous wastes.
4.04 A fairly detailed "promotional", policy framework is in place. The
policy framework comprises the National Forest Policy, 1988, the National
Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on Environment and
Development, 1992 and the Policy Statement for Abatement of Pollution,
1992. These policy statements complement the National Water Policy,
the Factory Act, 194B and other related legislation having a bearing on
natural resources and economic activities. The contours of the legal and
policy framework have already been brought out in the Foreword.
4.05 The *promotional" framework of policies has impingned India's
environment scene economically and institutionally. The numerous
schemes of financial assistance and fiscal incentives inr the area of
forestry, wildlife and pollution control will be detailed in the subsequent
Chapter. The institutional impact of the policy framework lie in the
scheme of deceniralised community-based management systems for
management of degraded forests, initiated by the Government of India
through a Government circular of June, 1990 for decentralised
management of forests and sharing of usufructs. As on date, 13 State
Governments in India have issued usufruct sharing orders in respect of
forest lands.
People's Involvment in Regeneration of Degraded Forest Lands
TheNationalForestPolicy. 1g88envisagespeople'sinvolvementinthedevelopmentand
protection of forests. The requirements of fuelwood, fodder and small timber such as house-
building material, of the tribals and other villagers living in and near the forests, are to be treated
as first charge on forest produce. The Policy document envisages it as one of the essentials of
forest management that the forest cownunities should be motivated to identify themselves with
the development and potection of forests from which they denve benefis.
CommitXtedvoluntaryagenciesVNGOs. with proven track record may prove particularly
well suited for motivating and organising village communities for protection, afforestation and
development of degraded forest land, especially in the vicinity of habitations. The State Forest
l * - -~~~~~~~..
DeparmentsmSocal Forestry Organisations ought to take full advantage of their expertise and
erxence in this espec for buiding up meaningful people's partkcapion in protection and
devebpment of degraded forest lands. 7he voluntary agerciesNGOs may be assocated as
nerface between State Forest Departments and the local village communities for revival,
restoration and devopment of degraded forests in the manner suggested below:
(i) The pogramme should be inplmented under an affangement between te Voluntary
AgencyiNGO, the willage community (bneficianes) and the State Forest Departnent.
(ii) Noownershp or lease rghts overthe forest land shouldbe given to the beneficaries or
to the Voluntary Agency/NGO. Nor should the fbrest land be assigned in contravention
of the provisions contained hi the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980.
(iii) The beneficiares should be antitled to a share in usufnucts to the extent and subject to
theconditionsprscrbedbytheStateGovernmentin thisbehalf. The VoluntaryAgencyl
NGO should not be entitled to usufnructory benefits.
(iV) AcceSS to forest land and usufnctory benefits should be only to the beneficiaies who
get organisedinto a vllage institution, specifically for forest regeneration andprotection.
This could be the Panchayat or the Cooperative of the village, with no restrction on
membership. It could also be Villae Forest Cxnnmm.4tee. In no case a:ould any access
or tree pattas be given to individuals.
(v) Thebenefciaesshouldbegiven usufructs likegrasses, lops and tops of branches, and
minorforestproduce. Iftheysuccessfullyprotectthe forests, they maybegivenaportion
of the proceeds from the sale of trees when they mature. (The Government of West
Bengal has issued orders to given 25% cf the sale proceeds to the Village Forest
Protection Commitees. Similar norms may be adopted by other States).
(vi) Areas tobemlectedfortheprogramme shouldbe freeom the claims (incuding existing
rights,privieges, concessions) ofanyperson who is notabeneficiay underthe scheme.
Altematively, fora given site the selecfton of bereficiares should be done in such a way
that any one who has a claim to any forest produce from the seleced site is not left out
without being given full opportunity of pining.
(vii) The selcted site should be worked in accordance with a Working Scheme, d ly
approvedby the State overment. Such scheme may remain in operation fora per 3d
of 10 years and revised/renewed after that. The Working Scheme should be prepared
in consultation with the beneficiaries. Apart from protection of the site, the said Scheme
may prewribe requisite operations, eg. inducement to natural regeneration of existng
rootstock, .;eeding,gap filing, and wherevernecessary, intensiveplanting, soil-moisture
conservatian measures etc The Working Scheme should also prescrbe other opera-
tions eg. fire-protection, maintenance of boundaries weeding, tending, cleaning,
thinning etc.
(viii) For raising nurseres, preparing land forplanting andprotecting the trees afterplanting,
thebeneficiaies shouldbepaidbytheForestDepartmentfrom the funds underthesocial
forestry programme. However, the village commnunity may obtain funds from other
Govemment agencies and sources for undertaking these activities.
(ix) tshouldbeensuredthat thereisnograzingatallintheforestlandprotectedbythe vilage
gum
... . - . . - . - . * . *
t_"- - - , - - -
- ;E- ,, * _
MEMBERS OF THE VILLAGE PROTECTION COMMNTrEE AT COTA BHANTABHABRA
RANGE -JHABUAFORESTDIVISIONDISCUSSINGWITH THEFORESTOFFICIALS
community. Permission to cut and carry grass free of cost should be given so that stall
feeding is promoted.
(x) No agriculture should be pemrmited on the forest land.
(xi) Along with trees for fuel, fodder and timber, the village community may be permiitted to
plant such fruit ftees as would fit in with the overall scheme of affomrstation, such as
aonla, Imli, mango, mahua etc. as wel as shrubs, Jegumes andgrasss which wvuld
meet local needs, help sil and water consevadon, and ennch the. degraded soils]
land. Even indigenous medicinalplants may be grown according to the requirement and
preference of beneficiaries.
(xii) Cutting of trees should not be permitted before they are rpe for harvesting. The orest
department aLso should not cut the trees on the forest land being procted bythe village
communities except in the manner prescibed in the Working Scheme. In case of
emergency needs, the village communities should be taken into confidence.
(xiii) The benefit of people's paticpation should go to the village communities and not to
commercial or other interests which may try to derive benefit in their names. The
selection of beneficianes should therefore, be done from only those families which are
wiling to paticipate through their personal efforts.
(xiv) The Forest Department should losely supervise the works. If the beneficaries and/or
the VoluntaryAgencyANGO failorneglect toprotectfthe area fromgrazing, encoacent
or do not perfom the operations prescnbed in the Working Scheme in a satsfactory
manner, the usufuctorybenefits shouldbe withdrawn withoutpaying coIr ion to
anyone for any work that might have been done pnor to it. Suitable provisions in the
Memorandum of Understanding for this purpose should be incorporated.
TextoffheJune 1, 1990guidelines oftheMinistryofEnironmnent& Forests, Govemmetofindia
Organisational structure for Environment Management In India
4.06 Based on the recommendations of the Reports of the Comm;ttee for
Recommending Legislative Measures and Administrative Machinery for
Ensuring Environmental Protection, a Department of Environment was
set up, in 1980, within the Government of India. Over the years this has
e.panded into a full fledged Ministry of Environment and Forests.
The Ministry has four divisions:-
a. Environment - with the field formation being the CPCB for
exercise of promotional and regulatory functions underthe Water Air and
Environment Protection Acts;
b. Forests and Wildlife - the field for-mations are the Wildlife
Preservation Offices located in different parts of the country for
implementing the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972 and the Regional Offices
of the Ministry of Environment and Forests for implementing the provisions
of the Forest ( Conservation) Act, 1980;
C. Ganga Proiect Directorate - the project is administered by a
Steering Committee headed by the Secretary (Environment and Forests),
Government of India. The nodal departments in States are the departments
of Urban Development in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal and the
Uttar Pradesh Jal Nigam and the Bihar Rajya Jal Parishad, and Calcutta
Metropolitan Development Authority. This Directorate will supervise the
National River Action Plan as and when it is finalised; and
d. National Afforestation and Ecodevelopment Board - Six Regional
Centres have been established under the National Social Forestry Project
to provide support for project preparation/formulation and for interaction
with Government.
4.07 In addition, there are various institutes and bodies under or
working with the Ministry of Environment and Forests, which are
categorised in terms of their broad functions below:-
Research & Development:
a) Indian Council for Forestry Research and Education, Dehradun,
and its constituent institutions i.e. the Forest Research Institute,
Dehradun; the Institute for Wood Science and Technology,
Bangalore; the Institute of Forest Genetics, Coimbatore; the Institute
of Deciduous Forest, Jabalpur; the Institute of Rain Forest, Jorhat;
and the Institute of Arid Zone Forestry Research Institute, Jodhpur.
b. Indian Plywood Industries Research Institute, Bangalore;
c. Centre for Mining Environment, Dhanbad.
d. Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy, Dehradun
e. GB Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and Development,
Almora, with its constituent units at Sikkim, Himachal Pradesh,
Garhwal and North East.
f. Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad.
g. Ecological Research & Training Centre, Bangalore.
h. C.P.R. Environmental Education Centre, Madras.
i. Salim All Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,
Coimbatore.
j. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.
k. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta
I. Forest Survey of India, Dehradun.
m. National Museum of Natural History, New Delhi.
n. Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal.
O. Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun.
4.08 In addition to these institutes, the Ministry works through several
Committees and Councils which dealing with specific research problems,
carrying capacity studies, clean technologies, waste management, impact
assessment, etc. A review of the activities of the Ministry and its
institutions and bodies suggests that:
a. Adequate organisational infrastructure exist for the following tasks
and strategies: the conservation and regeneration of forests;
conservation of wildlife and genetic diversity; environment Impact
Assessment; ecodevelopment and Joint Forest Management;
research and development in Forestry and Wild Life; monitoring of
pollution and of forest canopy cover; waste management; training
in forestry and wildlife conservation; and the prevention and
control of air and water pollution.
b. Some, though inadequate, organisational infrastructure exists for
the remaining tasks and strategies, except for : conservation of
rangelands; protection of diverse and traditional ecological cultures
and systems of knowledge; and development and absorption of
cleaner technologies.
Other Ministries and Departments of the Government of India
4.09 A large proportion of the environmental tasks and strategies
involve Ministries and Departments otherthan the Ministry of Environment
and Forests (MOEF). In fact, in some cases, the major responsibility
rests with agencies other than the MOEF.
4.10 A look at the schemes and structures of other concerned
Departments suggests that adequate administrative structures seem to
exist for:-
a. regeneration of biomass outside recorded forest areas - within the
Ministry of Rural Development;
b. energy conservation and development of alternative sources -
,.,,5
within the Ministry of Power, Ministry of Industry and Ministry of
Non-Conventional Energy Sources;
c. monitoring of water quality - within the Ministry of Water Resources;
d. EIA for water resource projects - within the Ministry of Water
Resources;
e. watershed management - within the Ministry of Water Resources
and the Ministry of Agriculture;
f. soil conservation - within the Ministry of Agriculture;
9g protection of forests through control of shifting cultivation - within
the Ministry of Agriculture;
h. conservation of domesticated biodiversity - within the Ministry of
Agriculture;
i. technical support for ex-situ conservation and bio-safety - the
Department of Bio--echnology;
j. technology for environment protection - CSIR and its laboratories,
industrial R&D laboratories; and
k. solid waste collection and disposal in urban areas - Ministry of
Urban Development, Government of India.
-E
4.11 Forthe othertasks and strategies, partial administrative structures
do exist.
Provincial Structures
4.12 All the States and Union Territories have Departments looking
after environment and forests, collectively or singly. In addition, most of
the States have State Pollution Control Boards. Some of the States also
have specialised institutes like the Kerala Forest Research Institute,
Kerala, the Madhya Pradesh Forest Research Institute,the Environmental
Protection and Co-ordination Agency (EPCO), Madhya Pradesh,
Environment Protection and Training Institute, Andhra Pradesh or the
State Wastelands Development Board, Maharashtra. The State Pollution
Control Boards have a significant role to play in environmental monitoring
and pollution control.
4.13 A preliminary assessment of the administrative structures in the
States suggest that though adequate structures exist forthe conservation
and regeneration of forests and wildlife, and for the prevention and
control of air and water pollution, almost all other tasks and strategies
have none or very inadequate administrative structures. Though specific
States have administrative structures in position for one or another of the
remaining tasks and strategies, there is no uniformity about this.
International Agreements
4.14 India is signatory to the six important Conventions that have a
direct bearing on environment protection and conservation. These are
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES),
the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the Ramsar
Convention), the Convention on Climate Change, the Convention for
Conservation of Biological Resources and the Vienna Conyentionf
Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. In
addition, India was a party to the 6Rio Declaration on Environment and
Development" and the Agenda 21, the operational programme for
sustainable development also adopted at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development at Rio de Janeiro in June, 1992.
CURRENT PROGRAMMES
5_CURRtET PROGRAMMES
5.01 India's programmes and achievements in the sphere of environment
* can be broadly categorised into two parts (a) programmes for
environmental protection and conservation of the Ministry of Environment
and Forestry and (b) programmes having significance for natural resources
conservation and protection initiated by other sectoral Ministries/
Department at the Central Government.
5.02 The projects initiated under these programmes can be public
investment based (financed by the CentrallState Governments) or
implemented with assistance from multilateral and bilateral donor
agencies. In terms of their basic characteristics current projects in India
can be divided into two categories (a) those which are designed for
organisational building or strengthening for research, conservation and
environmental protection and (b) those which are non-organisational or
are operational in nature.
5.03 The main programmes being undertaken by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests are as below:
a. survey of natural resources including flora, fauna and survey of
forest cover and resources;
b. conservation of natural resources. This Includes biosphere
resources, wetlands, mangroves and coral reefs, forests and
wildlife, besides botanical gardens;
c. environmental impact assessment - assesu-ment and regulation for
management;
d. monitoring, control and prevention of pollution;
e. management of hazardous substances;
f. regeneration and development including the Ganga Action Plan
and afforestation and eco-development;
g. research on natural resources and ecosystems;
h. education and information in forestry, wildlife and for environmental
awareness;
i. legislation and organisational support for environmental
management, which has already been discussed; and
j. international cooperation for seeking bilateral and multilateral
assistance and for addressing 'the global environmental issues."
5.04 The projects undertaken underthese programmes are summed up
as below.
Survey of Natural Resources
5.05 Organisatlonal : Establishment of Environmental Information
System, Centre on Animal Ecology in the Zoological Survey of India.
5.06 Non-Organlsatlonal: Floral/faunal surveys by the Botanical Survey
of India/Zoological Survey of India respectively in various parts of India
for identifying, cataloguing classifying and critically assessing the
characteristics of the species surveyed.
Environment Impact Assessment Studies on ecology and wildlife
by the two organisations; and
survey by the Forest Survey of India for assessing forest cover in
India and drawing up forest resources inventory for various parts
of the country.
Conservation of Natural Resources
5.07 Organisational
- establishment of a Central Zoo Authority to support, oversee,
monitor and coordinate, management of Zoos in the country;
assistance to State Governments for initiating monitoring and
evaluation of Tiger Reserves by independent agencies; and
- assistance for establishing nature interpretation centres at Wildlife
national parks and sanctuaries.
5.08 Non-Organisational:
designation of wetlands underthe Ramsar Convention on wetlands;
formulation and approval to management action plans for different
wetlands/mangroves and coral reefs in the different parts of India;
assistance to botanical gardens for augmenting their activities in
conservation and protection of plant genetic resources;
drawing up of an integrated perspective programme fordevelopment
of forestry sector at national and provincial level under the UNDP/
FAO assisted National Forestry Action Programme;
assistance to State Governments for supply of modern fire-fighting
equipments underthe 'Modern Forest Fire Control Project' originally
assisted by the UNDP/FAO;
constitution/enlargement strengthening of protected areas in India,
already comprising of 75 National Parks, 421 Wildlife Sanctuaries
with an area of 1,40,675.46 sq. kms;
enlargi ng and strengthening the area underuproject/Tigeri network,
monitoring the implementation of management plans in tiger
reserves; and
assistance to zoological parks.
Environmental Impact Assessment:
5.09 Organisatlonal
- training in EIA of the planners, decision makers, bureaucrats and
professionals.
IE
5.1 0 Non-Organisatlonal
- project appraisal for the grant of environmental clearances;
issue of notifications to regulate developmental activities in fragile
ecosystems and areas which are vulnerable to environmental
deterioration;
supporting studies on carrying capacity in environmentally fragile
or problematic areas; and
- imonitoring the performance of stipulated EIA conditions
Industrial Pollution Control ProJect of India
To give teeth to our corprehensive anmnmentalpotcton lgision and in orderto
operationalsendia's Poiy Statement forAbatementof Pokition an Industrial Pollution Control
Project was initiated with a World Bank ine of credit of US$ 155.6 milion and counte,part fnds
of UJS$ 108 milion (o be providedbythe Gomvment of india/Sta GovernmentsWeveAppmn
Financial Institutes) with the fbolwing objectives:
- to strengthen the monitoring and enforrementabilities of the Polknto Control Boads of
the heavly industWized States in the countiy, viz Gujarat Maharashtra, Tamnl Nadu
and UtLtar Pradesh.
- to get individual units install appropriate pollbion control devices.
- to assist the establishment of Common Effluent Treatment Plants for Xt combnd
treatment of effluents from dusters of small scale units.
- to introduce dean technolgies which would have a minumum generation of wastes
through d ion prects and studies.
- to support a training programme of the staff ofthe Pdoltion Control Boads and of the
financial instiutions iwvolved in the Prqect
ThethreebradcomponentsaoftheIndustrialPolution ConrbdProectare:(i) InstitIonal
Develpment Component which wouJd finance the acquisition of equipment and obtr faciities
r~ ~ ~ ~~.
by the State Pollution Control Boards concemed besides providing training to theirpersonnel.
(ii) the investment component which wouid finance sub-loans to industral units of the large and
medium scale for installation of pollution control faciities and provide sub-lans/subgrants for
setting up common effluent treatment plants for cluster of industral units and blishment of
demonstration project on deaner technologies of industria production.
As on 30th Apl, 1992, under the Investment Component the Deveopment Finance
Institutes viz. the Industrial Develpment Bank of India (IDBI) and the Industnal Credit a
Investment Coiporationofindia had sanctioned loans to the tune of US$25.805 million forpaper
& pup,. chemicaLs. phammaceutcals, dye anddye-intermediate. fethlizer, stel ndustnriaunts and
refineres. An amount ofRupees 85. 789a khss adsdis been sanctionedforiinstallation of Comwon
Effluent Treatment Plants during 1993-94. t is envisaged to diversify The Industnal Polluion
Control Project both in terms of its geographical and sectoral sprad.
Monitoring/Preventlon and Control of Pollution
5.11 Organisatlonal
- Swedish assistance for strengthening the 'Environmental Protection,
Training and Research Institute', Hyderabad and the Pollution
Control Research Institute, Hardwar, (Uttar Pradesh) ior providing
training to policy makers and technmcians in environmental
management;
' organisation strengthening of Central and State Pollution Control
Boards underthe World Bank assisted Industrial Pollution Control
and Prevention Projects; and
technical assistance to the Ministry of Environment and Forests for
evaluating environmental problems and financial assistance for
undertaking feasibility studies for the pollution control.
- E~~~Li
5.1 2 Non-Organlsatlonal
monitoring of air and water quality for selected oheavily polluting
units and landlaquatic/river zones of the country;
- measures for controlling non-stationary sources of pollution such
as vehicular pollution;
preparation of action plans for the abatement of pollution In highly
polluting industries;
- notifying environmental standards for various industries;
implementation of World Bank assisted $155.6 million, Industrial
Pollution Control Project and the proposed Industrial Pollution
Prevention Projects in the States of Gujarat , Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu and Uttar Pradesh;
scheme for labelling of environmentally friendly products for
household and consumer products; and
scheme on *Adoption of clean technology to the Small Scale
Industries and to extend 1echnical Supportr to encourage
modernisation of Small Scale Units In India.
pilot project for blomonitoring of river Yamuna with assistance of
the Netherlands fordeveloping a water quality Index which Is being
tested in other basins of Tungabhadra and Challyar rivers In South
India; and
operation of automatic water quality stations with Dutch (The
Netherlands) assistance in the River Ganga for continous
monitoring of water quality.
Mansgement of Hazardous Substances
5.13 Organisatlonal
- financial assistance for research projects to develop technologies
for the scientific handling and treatment of hazardous wastes;
- training programmes for various categories of personnel in the
management of chemical accidents;
- training programmes on household disposal of wastes and
environmental sanitation for urban slum dwellers; and
- financial assistance to State Pollution Control Boards for setting
up infrastructure for regulating management of hazardous
substances.
5.14 Non-Organisatlonal
- financial assistance to States for conducting EIA studies for
identification of sites for disposal of hazardous substances.
, 1
A.' - 77 -77~'~ 4
~~~~~~ <
-'-S.-.-
OXIDATIONPOND,GANGAACTIONPLAN,WESTBENGAL
HARIDWAR, RIVER GANGA, ONE OFTHE FOCUS POINTS OFTHE GANGA ACTION
PLAN
Ganga (River) Action Plan
5.15 Orgenisatlonal
* - public awareness and education programmes involving NGOs,
youth, pilgrims and school students.
5.16 Non-Organisational
a. setting up of infrastructure forinterception, diversion andtreatment
of domestic/industrial sewage in 25 Class I towns along the river
Ganga;
b. monitoring of 68 grossly polluting industries discharging effluents
into the Ganga river and its tributaries;
C. epidemiological studies for study of the Ganga Action Plan on
human health diseases;
d. pollution abatement schemes for the Yamuna and Gomti rivers as
the Ganga Action Plan Phase II project at a total cost of Rs.421
crores. The project is to be undertaken in 15 towns along the
Yamuna river and 3 towns along the Gomti river.
e. a National River Action Plan to support pollution abatement works
in other polluted stretches of major rivers in India.
The National River Action Plan
Vanous scientific studies carred out from the early 1950s to 1970s had revealed the
declining trend in water quality of thr river Ganga. The Ganga Action Plan was formulated and
launched priarily to arrest this degradation by a comprehensive programme of interceptron,
diversion and treatment of dompestic sewage and prevention of toxic and industnal chemical
wastes from identifiedgrosslypolluting indusdialunits entering into the rver. The evolution of the
Gsnga Action Plan since its inception in 1986 has had many rnteresting lessons to offer both in
the matterofnverbasin management andprjectimplementation. FurthertheGngpa Action Plan
has also persuaded government to fook into the growing prob/em of pollution and deteriorating
waterquality in the othernversinthecountry. The NationalRiverAction Plan has been conceived
as a larger plan to carry out pollution abatement works in fourteen grossly poJlted stretches in
nine of 17 rvers in India and fouteen less polluted stretches in the remaining eight rvers. About
folty fourtowns wouldbecoveredbythe National RiverAction Plan in the first instance fortackling
the problem of pollution load in their ver stretches. The States covered are Andhra Pradesh,
Gujarat. Himachal Pradesh, Kamataka, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Tanil Nadu
and Littar Pradesh. An amount of Rs.900 crores is estimated as the cost of treatment of 1650
milion litres of wastewater per day likely to be generated by the forty four towns. The State
Govemmentsconcernedhaveshowngreatenthusiasm frtheprogramme, whosetechnicaland
administrative structure is under finalisation.
Afforestatlon and Eco-Development Board
5.17 Organisational
- support to seven regional centres to support State Governments
preparation of projects for afforestation and eco-development with
people's participation;
- assistance to the eco-task force to assist and utilise ex-army
personnel for the restoration of wastelands and environmentally
degraded areas, in UttarPradesh,Jammu & Kashmirand Rajasthan.
5.18 Non-Organisational
a. scheme for conservation of non wood forest produce including
medicinal plants;
b. development of forest and pasture seeds;
c. scheme for aerial seeding (100% Centrally Sponsored);
d. centrally sponsored Integrated Wastelands Development Project
Scheme. This includes the World Bank assisted National Social
Forestry Project launched in the States of Rajasthan, Utar Pradesh,
Himachal Pradesh and Gujarat and Kerala and the Swedish
International Development Agency - assisted social forestry proj....
in Tamil Nadu, the European Community - assisted "Greening of
Aravallis in Haryana, the Overseas Economic Cooperation Fund
(OECF - Japan) assisted projects relating to Afforestation and
Pasture Development along the Indira Gandhi Canal and the
Afforestation project for Aravalli Hills in Rajasthan;
e. fuelwood and fodder projects scheme (50% Centrally Sponsored);
f. seed development scheme (100% Centrally Sponsored);
g. grants-in-aid to voluntary agencies for afforestation and wasteland
development assisted by OECF (Japan);
h. administration of the National Fund for Afforestation;
i. mapping of wastelands and geographical information systemrs; and
j. forest development projects in the Western Ghats with ODA
assistance.
A forestatlon Programmes : Appralsia of progress In Seventh Five Year Plan
In the Seventh Plan there was considerabl Increase in the total area brought under
afforestation programme. Bbck plantations, strip plantations and farm forestry were canied out.
Plan funds were made available through Forest Department in the States. These were futther
supplemented in 15 States with new projects which received sxternal assistance. While the total
afforestation dunng the Sixth Plan period was only 4.65 million ha, the coverage in the Seventh
Plan, was 8.87 million ha.
Tobrngaboutqualitativechangesinthisprogramme, aNationalWastelandsDevebpment
Board (NWDB) was set up in June 1985, with the principal aim of reclaiming wastelands through
a massive programme of afforestation with people's participation.
An independentevaluation of Rural FuelvoodPlantation (RFP) scheme was caniedout
by the National Council for Applied Economic Research at the behest of National Wastelands
DevelopmentBoard(NWDB). Thestudyhasrevealedcertaindeficenciesin thescheme namely,
low survival of plantation (between 40 to 50 percent) and poor health of the surviving plants;
inadequato consolidation of effort and discontinuity; poor maintenance and after care of
. hnstStates, ambiioustargets andbadadvance
planning leading to poor choice of planting matenal and lack of people's involvement.
A numberofprogrammesofafforestation weretaker up tosecurepeoplesparfiipation.
Under this scheme, priority was given to
i) establishment of decentralised nurseries and school nurseries;
ai) bbck plantation specially on community land and lands of Schedule Cast & Schedule
Tribes and people living belw the poverty line;
iii) pasture development through people's institutions and involvement; and
iv) assistance in the implementation of the Tree Patta Schemes.
The scheme of decentralised people's nursenies was initiated in 1986-87 to encourage
seedling production by farmers, especially small and marginal farmers to establish small,
dispersed nurseries to cater to local needs of planting material and provide income generating
activities to the beneficiaries.
Soci.al forestry projects which were ini^ated in 1981-82 for periods ranging from five to
eight years continued in the Seventh Plan. They envisaged tree planting and afforestatian of
19,84,600 ha. of wastelands with a total investment of Rs.911.73 crores. These projects were
assisted by several extemal agencies, including the World Bank, United States Agency for
Intemational Development and Overseas Development Agency of United Kingdom.
Seeds for the ongoing prngrammes of afforestation were mostly collected without
determning their quality. For development of quality seeds, a centrafly sponsored scheme was
introduced by the National Wastelands Developrnent Board (NWDB) in 1988-89.
To en.sureanarea-specircapproachonfuelwoodandfodder, anewcentrallysponsored
UU~~~ U
scheme was initiated from 1988-89. This scheme was to cover the watersheds in the districts
includedundertheNationalWatershedDevelopmentProgrammeoftheDepatmentofAgriculture,
so as to ensure integrated development of wastelands in the identified watersheds. The scheme
was to be implemened initially, in 52 districts of 11 States.
Aeral seeding holds the potential to cover vast tracts quickly in a cost effective manner,
especially in remote, inaccessible areas like ravines and hills A Centrally-Sponsored Scheme
for Aerfial Seeding was initiated by the National Wastelands Development Board from 1988-89
to assist a few selected states in systematically carrying out aerial seeding in remote areas and
to develop and standardise the steps involved in aerial seeding techniques.
To encourage fbw of instftutional finance for socially beneficial afforestation and
watershed development projects and to encourage afforestation through people's active
participation, a margin moneyscheme was initiatedbyNWDBin 1987-88. This is a CentralSector
Scheme where 25% of theproeoct cost isgiven asgrant, providedan equalmatchingcontribution
is given by the eligible Institution/State and at least 50% of the total project cost is financed by
a financial institution.
Under the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP)s and Rural Landless
Employment (NREP) and RuralLandless Employment Guarantee Programme (RLEGP) camied
out by the Department of Rural Devebpment, 25% of the funds were specifically earmarked for
the social forestry component, during the first fouryears of the Seventh Plan. The afforestation
component under these programmes was implemented by the State Forest Developments
mainly on Govemment and community lands, road sides and canal embankments. Since the
availability of community lands was limited, aforestation was also carred out on degraded forest
lands. Bulk of the funds forthe forest rysector came from the Rural Employment Schemes under
the socialforestrycomponent. However, an evaluation caedoutby the Programme Evaluation
Organisation of the Plannintj Commission has irdcated the people's participation under this
prgramme has been very limited and the trees planted were of species which met the
requirement of wood forurban markets rather than the subsistence needs offueland fodderof
the rural poor.
An appraisal of the various afforestation schemes undertaken above reveal some
deficiences. They have no specfc plan of action formeeting fuel wood and fodder requirements
except for the continuance of the scheme for rural fuel wood plantation, which does not directly
address these issues. Fostering of people's movements forafforestation has been done largely
through increasing people's interest on farm forestry. Under the social forestiy prgramme. the
efforts have largely been departmental. The ruralpoor and tribals, who depend mostly on public
and forest lands for their living, have at best, given restricted access to the areas taken up for
development
The existing wastelanddevelpmentschemesgenerallyare notbasedon mtegrating the
control of run.-off rain-water for reducing erosion, soil and water conservation and water
harvesting. In propagating this technology, there is a need to identify and demonstrate such
approaches which have low cost and are less dependant on capital and extemal inputs.
Eighth Five Year Plan. .9.2-97wr Vol It, Planning Commission, Govemment of India.
Environmental/Forestry Research/Education and Tralning
5.19 Organisational
financial support for institutes coming under the Indian Council for
Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) which Include the
Institute of Tree Breeding and Genetics, Coimbatore, the Institute
of Wood Sciences and Technologies, Bangalore, and the Institute
for Arid Zone Research, Jodhpur;
strengthening of the Ecological Research and Training Centre,
Bangalore for research on the Western Ghats eco-systems;
assistance to the Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal,
for research on ecological and socio-economic issues;
strengthening wildlife research through the Wildlife Institute of
India, Dehra Dun, and the Salim Ali Centre for Conservation of
Nature (SACON), Coimbatore;
strengthening of institutes for training forestry personnel in India
by assistance to the Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy,
Dehra Dun, and State Forest Service Colleges located at Dehradun,
Burnihat and Coimbatore;
strengthening research on mountain development and ecology by
establishment of the G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment
and Development, Almora, Uttar Pradesh;
strengthening the Indian Institute of Forest Management fortraining
and higher education in Forest Management, with Swedish
assistance;
assistance ior "Paryavaran Vahinin (volunteer environmental task
force) to involve students, youth and general public in activities
related to environmental conservation and protection in 100
environmentally critical districts of India; and
a scheme of assistance to State Pollution Control Boards for
strengthening manpower and procurement of equipment.
National Forestry Action Programme
The Governmentof India, appreciating the spirit of the global Tropical Forestry
Action Programme, has decided to prepare its own national Forestry Action Programme
(NFAP) in consonance with its National Forest Policy of 1988. The exercise, to be
implemented with technical cooperation of FAO will result in:
NI) a forestry sector review paper covering critical issues affecting forestry
development in the country.
(iiJ a perspective action progra mme for the long and mid term for development of
forestry sector at National and State level, together with a short term priority
action programme for the next five years.
(iii) integration of approaches based on localinitiatives, including projects supported
by external donors.
While the focus of the NFAP would be the increase in and sustainable
managementof forests and tree resources contributing to bio-diversity and conservational
and climatic needs, this will be harmonised with the national development goals.
*-
Apart from the Government of India's contribution of Rs.65 lakhs (US$ 200000)
to the scheme, USS 716000 are beingprovided as UNDP assistance. Project Document
has been signed on 21.6.1993 and the formulation of NFAP has become operational
from 1. 7.1993. The project pefiod is two years.
5.20 Non-Organisational
- financial support for research projects underthe Man and Biosphere
Programmes, Environmental Research Scheme and the Integrated
action-oriented research demonstration and extension programme
on the Eastern and Western Ghats;
financial support for research projects for conservation and
management of wetlands, mangroves and Biosphere Reserves;
and
financial support for research on plywood/wood-based substitution.
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION AND AWARENESS
5.21 Organlsational
- assistance for CPR Environmental Education Centre, Madras and
Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad and the National
Museum of Natural History, New Delhi for environmental education
and creating popular awareness amongst school children and
villages and teachers; and
70
assistance to several organisations comprising of NGOs, schools.
colleges, universities, research organisations, women and youth
organisations from all States for environmental awareness under
the annually organised mNational Environment Awareness
Campaign."
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
5.22 Organisational
- Coordination Committee of the Ministry of Environment & Forests
to review externally aided projects in the environment & forest
sectors;
Ozone cell for the implementation of the Montreal Protocol on
Substanced depleting the Ozone Layer, 1987; and
- Inter-Ministerial Cell for screening and selecting projects for
assistance under Global Environmental Facility.
5.23 Non Organisatlonal
- monitoring of bilateral/multilateral assisted projects in environment
& forests;
Project formulation for external assistance;
global environmental issues, viz. ozone depletion, climate change,
bio-diversity conservation and trans-boundary movement of
hazardous wastes;
FE
Agenda 21, Capacity 21 and Global Environmental Facility
multilateral cooperation through SAARC/SACEP; and
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
(ICIMOD), Kathmandu.
5.24 In terms of physical and financial aspects, Table 7 to 9 gives an
indication of the types of externally-aided projects and their progress/
achievements. Litigation and relatively poor re-imbursements explain
the poor progress of expenditure for certain externally-aided projects,
expecially those coming under the Ganga Action Plan. However, the
Ganga Action Plan has its positive features, as epidemiological and
water quality studies indicate. With the exception of Kanpur, the DO and
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) meet the permissible limits for bathing.
The epidemiological studies also indicate a lessening incidence of
bronchial, skin and water-borne diseases in the non-Kanpur segment, of
the River Ganga. But problems remain in the form of bacteriological
pollution which is on account of discharges from sewage treatment plants
in bigger towns and also on account of unhygienic practices of bank side
river use such as for defecation, cattle wallowing, cloth washing, carcass
and solid waste dumping. To bring down the coliform organisms in the
river water, possibility of utilising advanced technologies such as ultra
violet irradiation etc. is under examination. As far as general pollution
72
control is concerned, compliance to air and water standards which was
lagging behind appears to have picked up since 1991. The number of
firms complying with the pollution control standards have considerably
increased in the 17 categories of critically polluting industries in India
(Fig. 3). Similarly while the physical and financial progress of afforestation
projects is satisfactory, more efforts needed to be devoted in the area of
quality seed nurseries and sustained protection to the afforested areas.
Developme. - rogrammes for Natural Resources Conservation and
Protection:
5.25 Development programmes focussing on water and soil conservation,
cleaner industrial production processes, energy efficiency and alternative
energy, have afundamental environmental purpose. While irrigation and
drinking water programmes in urban and rural areas form the water
development programmes of environmental concern, watershed
development and soil conservation programmes form development projects
for integrated conservation of soil and water. Application of biotechnology,
waste utilisation production processes and waste reduction resulting in
cleaner production, go a long way in reducing the problem of pollution of
air and water. Energy efficiency and cleaner and alternative sources of
energy are also oi significant in maintaining air and water quality. The
programme and projects undertaken by the Ministries of Agriculture,
Rural Development, Urban Development, Industrial Development and
Power (including Non-Conventional Energy Sources) having a bearing
on the five areas are briefly summed up below.
Ministry of Agriculture:
5.26 Organisatlonal
a. Agro-climatic Regional Planning Approach (ACRP) initiated by the
Planning Commission in 1988 to formulate Integrated Developmt :
plans for agriculture and allied sectors according to agro-climatic
conditions. During the eighth Plan, emphasis is on development of
resources and their optimum utilisation in an integrated and
sustainable manner for 15 broad agro-climatic zones in the country;
b. Strengthening for Agricultural Research and Education This also
covers areas such as biotechnology and remote sensing for
management of natural resources and agro-metereology;
c. Support for Fisheries Research not only to impiove yields but also
to study reservoir ecology and management, particularly from the
angle of fish diseases to increase fish production to the desired
levels;
d. Assistance to Agricultural Collegrs and Educational InStitutinfor
strengthening and upgrading existing organisational capacity for
educatior in fisheries, watershed management, pulses and fodder
development;
e. Small Farmers Agri-Business Consortium which will focus on
training programmes in environmentally sound management
practices for farmers and fishermen to take up economically efficient
programme of agri-business in the areas of agro-forestry besides
agriculture;
f. State Land-use Boards: for handling the subject of land resources
conservation including environmental and ecological aspects; and
g. Association of Women in Agriculture: whereby special emphasis
has been placed for association of women in watershed projects,
integrated pest management and agricultural extension.
5.27 Non-Organisational
a. Watershed Development Programmefor integrated and sustainable
approach for development of natural resources in rainfed and dry
land zones of India with 100% finance from Central Government;
b. Rain-fed Agriculture in National Watershed Develonment Project:
for evolving an integrated approach for adoption of low cost rain
waterconservation measuressuch as planting of vegetative barriers
on contour lines, contour ploughing, contour cropping etc., are
already being promoted In the arable lands. In the non-arable
lands various conservation and production measures like pasture
development, afforestation, etc., are being adopted. The emphasis
is also being given on use of bio-fertilizers and integrated pest
management;
c. Western Ghats Development Programme: This aims to undertake
activities such as soil conservation, animal husbandry, horticulture
and plantations in Western Ghats watersheds;
d. Inteorated Pest Managemen: aiming at promoting non-chemical
methods of pest management through manipulation of cultural
practices, conservation and augmentation of bio-control agents,
adoption of mechanical methods and minimum and need based use
of chemical pesticides based on the economic threshold levels of
pests; and
e. Balanced and integrated use of nutrients and Promotion of bio-
frtilizers : to control adverse effects of the use of chemical
fertilizers on soil and ground water and also for ensuring balanced
nutrition to crops by employing organic manures, green manures
and biological fertilizers. Field demonstrations through a network
of national and regional centres and financial assistance to State
Governments, Agro-industries Corporations and Fertilizer and
Seed Companies form the strategy for popularising bio-fertilizers
in the country.
Ministry of Water Resources
5.28 Organisatlonal
a. Strengthening People's Participation in Water Use in Irrigation:
This includes the successfully implemented Schemes of Lower
Bhavani Project and the Mohini Cooperative System.
b. ,Organiational Strengthening for Research & Development in
Water Resources Planning which is funded through the Scientific
and Technological Component in the Irrigation Sectorforwhich the
seventh Plan had provided an amount of Rs.1 10 crores.
5.29 Non-Organisatlonal
a. Command Area Development Programmes which commenced in
1974-75 as a Centrally Sponsored Scheme for execution of works
for ensuring equitable and timely supply of water to agricultural
H J
holdings falling within the Command Area of Irrigation Projects.
The focus of the CADP Is being re-oriented for land improvement
and development of drainage facilities in the command areas;
b. National Water ManaU mfnt Project for modernisation and
rehabilitation of seiected old water structures. Presently this
Project cover systems with a Com mand Area of 0.54 million hectares
in different parts of the country; and
C. Flood Control Programmes in Rivers Ganga and Brahmaputra.
MINISTRY OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT
5.30 OrganisatUonal
- constitutional status to Panchayati Raj Institutions; and
- TRYSEM.
5.31 Non-Organisational
a. Jawahar Rozgar Yojana for employment generation in rural areas
which also covers soil and water conservation, wasteland
development and Social Forestry projects besides rural roads and
rural housing;
b. The Drought Prone Aiea Programme (DPAP) launched in 1973 in
arid and semi-arid areas, with poor natural resource endownments.
EEl]
The focus of the DPAP Is on undertaking landshaping and soil
conservation, afforestation and pasture development, water
resources development and Livestock Development In 615 Blocks
of 91 Districts in 13 States. During the seventh Plan an allocation
of Rs.46276 lakhs was made out of which an expenditure of
Rs.46185.91 lakhs was incurred on land development, water
resources and forestry projects in DPAP areas;
c. lntegrated Rural Energy Programme for energy development in
rural areas with funding provided through Central and State Plans.
The focus of this Plan is decentralised Integrated Rural Energy
Planning with a least cost mix of various energy options,
conventional as well as renewable and non-conventional energy
sources at the Block level. During the Seventh Plan around 250
Blocks were covered under the Programme.
d. Raiiv Gandhi National Drinking Water Mission for Rural Water
Supply: The objective of the Mission is to provide safe drinking
water to rural population in villages at the rate of 40 litres of safe
drinking water per capita per day for human beings and 30 litres of
water on a per capita daily basis for cattle in the desert districts of
India within a distance of 1.6 kms. in the plains and 100 metres in
hilly areas. By safe drinking water is meant water, safe from
biological contamination (guinea worm, cholera, typhoid, etc.) and
chemical contamination (excess fluoride, brackishness, excess
iron, arsenic, nitrates, etc.). During the seventh Plan as against a
target of 23922 problem villages 251431 villages were covered
which indicates an 112% achievement; and
e. programmes for wasteland development in non-forest areas
administered by the National Wastelands Development
Board.
These include the following non-organisational projects:
a. The Integrated Wastelands Development Scheme - The basic
objective of the scheme is to start pilot projects aimed at integrated
land management based on village/micro level watershed plans
prepared after taking into account land capability, site conditions
and local needs of the people. The scheme also aims at enhancing
the content of people's participation in wastelands development
programmes.
b. The Investment Promotional Scheme - The principal objectives of
the scheme is to facilitate/attract investment from financial
institutes, corporate bodies, other agencies and entrepreneurs for
the development of wastelands in non-forest areas.
c. Technology Development and Extension Scheme - The main
objectives of the scheme are establishing technical database and
providing assistance to projects which are required for filling the
gaps in available technologies.
d. Support to Non-govemment Organisations - The scheme specifically
aims at supporting non-government organisations for taking-up
wastelands development projects.
e. Scheme for Promotional and Critical Support - The scheme aims at
buiiding database on wastelands and establishing a network for
dissemination of information regarding wastelands development
and providing 'Escort Service' to prospective agencies and
entrepreneurs interested in development of wastelands
f. Wastelands Development Task Force - Under the scheme, non-
forest wastelands in inaccessible and inhospitable terrains like
deserts, mountains, ravines, mined areas, etc will be developed for
sustainable use by enlisting the services of a dedicated ex-
servicemen.
HE
MINISTRY OF INDUSTRIES
5.32 Non-Organisatlonal
a. Modernisation of Indian Steel Industry in the public and private
sectors for the upgradation of technology and reduction of high
energy consumption. The steel plants which are-covered include
Durgapur, Rourkela and the Tata Iron and Steel Plants;
b. National Materials Policy Project for updating technology
information, forecasting and assessment to make Indian industries
globally competitive;
C. UNDP Assisted Pesticides Deveiopment Programme - for
developing new formulations of pesticides and upgrading personnel
engaged in quality control and hazard management in pesticide
irndustries; and
d. Research & Development Programme for Coir lndustry for finding
new uses of coir in improving soil stabilisation and erosion control
and for cooling buildings.
MINISTRY OF LABOUR
5.33 Organisatlonal
- Rural Workers Education Programme which cover landless
labourers, agricultural workers, marginal farmers, fisheries labour,
tribal labour, forest labour and rural artisans on industrial health,
safety and environment.
MINISTRY OF ENERGYICOAL
5.34 Non-Organisational
a. s.BI assisted credit scheme for financing Energy Conservation
Schemes in Industrial Undertakings;
b. Indian Renewable Energy Development Agency-assisted scheme
for financing of renewable energy development;
c. assistance for research & development for new and renewable
Sources of Energy (NRSE);
d. national project on Bio-gas Development, Improved Chullahs,
Solar Photo Voltaics, Wind Energy, Solar Thermal Energy and
Micro Hydels;
e. Coal Washing/Benefeciation Programmes;
f. assistance for research & development programme for energy
plantation and development of agricultural wastes and non-woody
based gasifiers for power production;
g. assistance for research and development and commercialisation
of incineration and other waste disposal technologies;
h. assistance for research & development for improving performance
of battery powered vehicles;
i. solar energy centre including National Testing Facility for Testing
and Calibration of Solar Photo Voltaic Components and other Solar
Thermal Devices; and
j. training facilities forenvironmental management of power projects,
including manpower development for rigorous safety standard for
nuclear projects and promotion of use of fly-ash.
MINISTRY OF HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE
5.35 Organisational
- development of a Centre for Epidemiological Health Intelligence in
Eighth Plan.
5.36 Non-Organisational
- clinical research on drugs of various systems and collection,
cultivation and propagation of medicinal plants.
I
Sustainable Cities Progranme
Thepnncpalgoalof SCP is to provide cities with an fiipovedenvironmental manage-
ment and planning capacity wtich is seff sustaining once the prgramme's support ends. 7he
SCP is designed to asist munk4pal authorites to identy enironmena issues at the cty lvel,
to establish prrities among these issues andtoprovide them with tools to address these is.
Theprgramme wi facirnateabetterunderstanding of the costs andben ets involvedandof the
economic costs of environmental negAcL The aim is also to create greater awareness of good
pradice inplanning andmanagement ofthe uthan environmentas wellas ofthepotentialmpacts
of aty growth on the natural resource base of the sumrunding region. The SCP Wl71 also helo to
build a deveoping county constituency for establishing and updaing utban environmental date
bases as the creatin and updating of such information bases is essential for the management
of the urban environment forpolicy formulaton, progranm iplementation and for monitorin
progress. Madras is one of threa cties in Asia seectd by United Nation Commission on HIuman
Settlement (UNCHS) fora city level project of the Sustanable Cities Programme. The Ministry
of Urban Developmenthas reoentay cleared theproject. Theproject budget is US$515,000.
' UNCHS, Sustainable Cities Programme-City Level Project. Prject Fomuilation Framewoi*,
December, 1991.
MINISTRY OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT
5.37 Organisatlonal
a. Building Materials and Technology Promotion Council (BMTPC) to
provide platform for technology transfer and application in the
shelter sector and promoting commercial production of innovative
materials, using fly-ash, red mud, phospho-gypsum and agricultural
wastes and for appropriate design of houses both in urban and
rural areas; and
b. Low Cost Sanitation and Small Towns Water Supply Schemes for
Pogulation Less Than 20.000 In order to provide facilities to the
poor and the economically weaker sections of the society, centrally
assisted programme for construction of individual and sommunity
latrines has been taken up alongwith the water supply schemes in
small towns.
5.38 Non-Organisamtonal
a. Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums introduced in 1974
and which benefitted 10 million slum dwellers during the seventh
Plan period;
b. Centrally Sponsored Scheme for Urban Basic Services introduced
in 1986 for enhancing survival and development of women and
children in low income urban families;
C. Integrated Development of Small and Medium Towns to provide
infrastructural support. During the Seventh Plan period, 145 towns
were covered;
d. National Capital Region for Delhi aimed at providing infrastructural
support to priority towns and for the Region as a whole; and
e. Nehru Rozgar Yojana for Employment for Urban Population living
below poverty line.
MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
5.39 Organisatlonal
a. establishment of a separate Department of Bio-Technology in
1986 i.e. during the Seventh Plan;
[Ri
b. establishment of Technology Information, Forecasting and
Assessment Council (TIFAC);
c. scientific inputs for National Technology/Societal Missions in the
areas of vaccination and immunization of vulnerable populations,
drinking water supplies to the villages, wasteland development
and livestock upgradation using embryo transfer technologies;
d. establishment .of a National Centre for Medium Range Weather
Forecasting for development of Agro-metereological services;
e. establishment of a joint sector unit i.e. the Indian Vaccine
Corporation Limited (IVCOL) in Gurgaon District in Haryana to
produce vaccines for rabies, measles, polio, etc.;
f. establishment of Bic Technology Consortium India Limited (BCIL)
with industries and financial institutions collaboration for
commercialisation of bio technology in India;
g. human resource development and manpower training to provide
skilled manpower for biotechnology programmes.
h. establishment of 11 National infrastructural facilities in various
scientific institutions in the country for germ plasm collection,
Animal House facilities.
i. the technologies absorption and adoptation scheme for interaction
of R&D by companies which have imported the technology and will
take advantage of the existing infrastructure; and
j. the transfer and trading in technology scheme which provides for
suitable avenues for commercially viable technologies produced
indigenously for marketing to other countries.
SPECIAL AREA DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES
5.40 Non-Organisational
a. Hill Area Development Programme: This programme is in operation
in Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Manipur, Meghalaya,
Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland and Mizoram, Assam, Darjeeling
District of West Bengal, the Nilgiri District of Tamil Nadu and Uttar
Pradesh hills and Western Ghats areas. The project has been launched
to over-come the problems of deforestation, soil erosion, drying up of
water sources, flash floods and consequenctial problems of poverty and
food shortage; and
b. Desert Development Programme: This was initiated in 1977-78 to
cover the desert region of Gujarat, Rajasthan and Haryana, besides the
cold deserts of Jammu and Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh. The
objective of the programme is to control the desertification, mitigate the
- E8-si1~
effects of drought and restore ecological balance in the affected areas
through land development, water resources development, afforestation
etc.
5.41 A general review of the aforementioned development programmes
implemented by the respective sectoral Ministries indicate that
development programmes which have fundamental implications on
environment and environmental considerations are being addressed as
a part of the development programmes and projects. In future, it may be
desirable to allocate a greater portion of investment resources on these
programmes for tangible environmental benefits.
DIAGNOSIS
..
6 DIAGNOSIS
6.01 If one were- to consider the criteria mentioned in the World
Development Report, 1992 on Environment and Development,
environmental problems in the developing world can be categoried as:
those arising due to lack of the development and those which arise on
account of development. Environmental problems of inadequate
sanitation, clean and safe drinking water, land degradation and local
pollution arising from the phenomenon of poverty come in the first
category. Development related environmental problems include industrial
pollution, energy related pollution, hazardous substances, commercial
agriculture and over use of natural resources for industrial activities. For
a country like India which has been forthe last five decades, endeavouring
for economic growth and development, it is logical to accord primacy to
environmental issues arising from the lack of economic development, to
ensure that the pursuit for environmental well-being is symbiotically
linked to the development process. This priority, in turn, would mean that
the issues of population growth, poverty and unemployment are considered
in an integrated manner, to assess their impacts on environment and for
devising appropriate programme for remediation. At the same time, it
would also be necessary to assess the impact of development related
environmental problems on poverty and adopt programmes for mitigating
adverse effects, if any.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS ARISING FROM NON-DEVELOPMENT:
POPULATION PRESSURE ON NATURAL RESOURCES AND POVERTY
6.02 India is the second largest country in the world in terms of human
population. On 2.4% of the world's land area India supports 16%
population. The population of India which was 361.1 million in 1951 went
upto 846.3 million in 1991.The population of Indiais increasing by about
17 million every year. The growth in India's population gathered momentum
in the last few decades. The average annual exponential growth rate
during the decade 1941-51 was only 1.25 per cent. It started showing
steadily increasing trends from 1951 onwards reaching a level of 2.22 per
cent during the decade 1971-81. The average annual exponential growth
rate in the decade 1981-91 came down to 2.14 per cent. The latest
available Sample Registration System (SRS) data indicate an annual
natural growth rate of 1.9 per cent in 1992. With a death rate of 10 and
birth rate of 29 (1992), India is currently in the third stage of demographic
transition. Though the decline in birth rate is significant it is not fast
enough to offset the decline in death rate. The death rate declined from
[E7
22.8 in 1951-61 to 10 In 1992. The IMR, at 79 per thousand live births in
1992, is still high, though it has declined significantly from 110 in 1981.
6.03 Life expectancy at birth has shown a remarkable increase from 32
years during 1941-51 to 58.6 years during 1986-91. The CBR declined
trom 41.7 in 1951-61 to 29.0 in 1992. The Total Fertility Rate (TFR) is 3.8
(1990 SRS) children per women as against 5.97 in 1951-61. 37 per cent
of India's population is in the age group 0-14 years. However, the
proportion of children below 15 years of age has fallen from 42 per cent
in 1971 to 37 per cent in 1991. The population of India is expected to
cross the one billion mark by 2001 as per the projections made by the
Standing Committee of Experts on Population Projections. The Committee
also estimated that the population of the country would be about 1082
million in 2006.
6.04 The serious implications of the 'number effect' of India's human
population has been underlined by the National Conservation Strategy
and Policy Statement on Environment and Development, 1992. The
following projections of the 2000 A.D. scenario which re-inforce this point
as follows:
a. it is estimated that to feed a human population of one billion by
2000 AD, India would need to produce 240 million tones of food
-E.
grains and provide for 225 million cubic metres. of fuel (Report of
the Working Group on Soil and Water Conservation including
Watershed Development for the Formulation of the Eighth Five
Year Plan, 1989);
b. similarly, according to the National Land Use Policy Outline,
(1986), of the Government of India, the per capita availability of
land would deteriorate from 0.89 ha. per head to 0.33 ha. per head
while the per capita availability of land for the animal population of
the country would decline from 0.51 ha. per head to 0.24 ha. per
head. This includes forest lands as well. The link between these
tendencies of a declining ratio of natural resource to human and
the phefiomenon of poverty, must be considered from the point of
view of the distribution of land and the differential access to natural
resources enjoyed by the various segments of India's population.
6.05 The distribution of land resources is skewed. Only a small
percentage of India's population own land whether it is agricultural, non-
agricultural and/or urban lands. This fact is coupled with the high rate of
unemployment in both the rural and urban areas. According to the
National Sample Survey (32nd and 38th rounds ), in the year 1983,
78.57% of the labour force (in persons) in India was in urban areas while
21.43% was in urban areas. A large proportion of this population is
unemployed, although there are regional variations. The problem of
under-employment is also high. It is estimated that the rural sector
contributed to 70% of the unemployment in India during 1983 on account
of a larger proportion of labour force living in these areas. However, the
absolute level of unemployment has been increasing in urban areas
partly also to increasing migration of labour force from rural to the urban
sector.
6.06 Although, the problems of population growth, landlessness and
unemployment do not hold a direct and linear relationship with the
phenomenon of poverty, it is well established that there is a positive
association between poverty, population growth and the two forms of
deprivation mentioned despite differences of opinion regarding a positive
statistical association amongst these variables. Poverty in India is
distributed both in rural and urban areas. There are 200 million people
who live under poverty conditions in rural India. About 41.8 million
people are under the poverty line in the urban areas according to the 43rd
round of the National Sample Survey of 1987-88. The phenomenon of
poverty is reflected in the quality of human population in India, particularly
in the matter of infant mortality and life expectancy, while the magnitude
of the poverty problem is also contributed by rapid growth of population
in India. Though, the rate of population growth and the percentage of
population under poverty line have shown a decline since 1970s, the
magnitude of the problems in terms of absolute numbers continued to be
formidable.
6.07 Rural and urban poverty in India has environmental effects. This is
reflected in the inadequate supply of drinking water and non-availability
of sanitation facilities for the people living under the poverty line. Table
shows that in 1990, nearly 16% of the urban population in India did not
have access to safe drinking water, while the percentage of rural
population not having access to this resource was 26%. The problem of
adequate sanitation services is even more acute since in 1988, 54% of
the urban population and 97% of the rural population did not have the
benefit of sanitation services. The inadequate coverage of these basic
services is responsible for the growing incidence of water/vector borne
diseases such as Malaria, Kala-Azar, Encephalitis, Tuberculosis, Guinea
Worm disease and Diarrhoea in various urban and rural zones of the
country. These diseases by disabling the rural and urban poor (the most
vulnerable group) increase the incidence of unemployment, aggravating
their poverty conditions. In addition, mention also needs to be made of
the growing incidence of respiratory diseases among the urban and rural
poor due to the use of agro-based fuels such as crop residues, high
cellulose fuelwood and cow dung fordomestic cooking. It is estimated by
the Integrattd Rural Energy Planning Report of the Planning Commission
that the average annual per capita use of non-commercial fuels range
from 129 kgs.(in the upper Gangetic zone) to 710 kgs.(in the Western
Himalayan Zone) in respect of firewood, 11.17 kgs. (in the Western dry
regions) to 238.40 kgs. (in the middle Gangetic zone) in respect of crop
residues and from 47.031 kgs. (in East-Coast Plains and Hills) to 238.92
kgs.( in the Trans-Gangetic Olains) in respect of cow-dung. All these
categories of fuels are by nature, polluting ones and cause respiratory
disorders.
6.08 The relatively high consumption of health affecting, low efficient
non-commercial fuels reflect the magnitude of poverty in India. At the
same time, the use of these non-commercial fuels also underlines the
pressure that the phenomenon of poverty can bring upon our common
lands forests, waterand othersensitive ecosystems with high biodiversity
potential viz. coral reefs, mangroves, wetlands, and our National Parks,
Sanctuaries and other protected areas. The absence of gainful
employment oppurtunities and viable cultivation opportunities force the
urban and the rural poor to depend upon the forests, National Parks and
Sanctuaries for appropriating fuelwood, fodder and small timber not only
=i
for their self consumption needs but also for livelihood means. According
to an estimate of the Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM), the
total fuelwood removal from forests is estimated to be more than 235
million cubic metres. It is also estimated by the IIFM that the minimum
requirement of green fodder for livestock in India is 882 million tonnes per
year of which harvestable green fodder from pastures, agricultural lands
and forests is 434 million tonnes, the substantial remaining gap to be
taken up by forests.
6.09 The coral reefs, mangroves and wetlands have also borne the
pressures of the subsistence needs oi ihe poor. This is reflected in the
growing phenomenon of encroachment of wetlands, over-fishing in
mangrove zones and coral reefs. Coming to agriculture, the near poverty
conditions of the subsistence farmers of India in the dryland belt of the
country (covering States of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, Gujarat and Maharashtra) also explain to a very larga extent
the growing incidence of soil and water erosion affecting agricultural and
non-agricultural lands. Similarly, the problems faced by the mountain
regions of the country is also considerable by way of soil erosion. The
extension of cultivation of marginal lands in the Himalayan region
combined with the loss of forest cover in the area has accelerated the
erosion of top soil and the trend towards land-slides. Both in the dry-land
belts and the mountain regions of the country, the tendency towards
increasing soil and water erosion results in low-recharge of aquifers and
consequent scarcity of drinking water in the arid districts of Rajasthan. As
per the present assessment, 44 Blocks in 11 districts in Rajasthan fall in
the category of over exploitation i.e. where the stage of development is
more than estimated repenishable ground water resources. Similar
instances of over-draft of ground water are reported for 180 Blocks in
Punjab, Haryana, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Maharashtra.
Over-exploitation of ground water resources and the consequent difficulty
in accessing this resource has led to the utilisation of traditional non-
drinking surface- water structures such as Nadis in Rajasthan fo r meeting
drinking water requirements of human beings (instead of for livestocks
as was the traditional practice) resulting in health hazards primarily in the
form of water borne diseases. The eastern zone States of West Bengal,
Bihar and Orissa have also been faced with the problems of soil erosion.
It is estimated that the total area affected by land-degradation is 14.20
lakh ha. in Bihar, 49.02 lakh ha. in Madhya Pradesh, 45.78 lakh ha. in
Orissa and 10.33 lakh ha. in West Bengal. The erosion has resulted in
sedimentation of reservoirs in these States such as Maithon, Panchet,
Mayurakshi, Hirakud etc.
6.10 Apart from the fact that soil and water erosion have resulted in
scarcity of both surface and ground water resources in the various
regions of the country, there is also the related problem of declining
water quality in various parts of India, particularly along river stretches,
water courses and canals. Of the various sources of water pollution,special
mention must be made of the pollution of water courses, streams and river
stretches due to absence of adequate sanitation facilities. This is mainly
reflected in the high coliform presence in river water as would be seen
from in Table 3. Biological contamination of water is also a common
problem mainly due to the presence of guinea-worm, cholera, and typhoid
bacilli in drinking water. The problem of guinea worm is prevalent in the
rcral areas of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Karnataka and Rajasthan, with Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh having
the maximum problem.
DEVELOPMENT RELATED ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
6.11 Development oriented programmes produce adverse environmental
effects. Industrial pollution, mining, commercial agriculture and large
scale irrigation system have also contributed to natural resource
degradation and depletion. Pollution of river/canal waters is another
major issue.
Environmental Problems of Commercial Agriculture
6.12 The problems of commercial agriculture on the environment is
manifest in the forms of increased non-point sources of pollution of water.
chemical contamination of drinking water, over exploitation of ground
water aquifers, neglect of surface irrigation structures such as tanks,
canals and major reservoirs and unbalanced utilisation of irrigation water
in the command areas reflected in the growing incidence of water-logging
and salinity both of which contribute to soil degradation.
6.13 The principal environmentalproblemswhich arisefromcommercial
agriculture and irrigation are numerous. Chemical contamination of
drinking water on account of excess flouride, brackishness, iron, arsenic,
nitrates, animal wastes and pesticides/fertiliser residues is a reflection
of the growing trend of both point (industrial pollution) and non-point
sources (fertiliser/pesticide application in commercial agriculture) on
surface and ground water resources, which are also used for drinking
purposes by human beings and livestock. Water quality assessment
studies indicate the incidence of high nitrates in drinking water in rural
areas in the States of Bihar, Orissa, Kamataka, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Haryana-
Excess fluoride in drinking water is prevalent in the rural areas of 15
States and Delhi, while excess iron which causes corrosion of tube-wells,
water supply installations and encourages growth of iron bacteria, are
also prevalent in the rural areas of 14 States, and the Union Territory of
Pondicherry.
6.14 The development of irrigation in India since Independence has
also displayed shifts. The total net irrigated area rose from 20.9 million
ha. in 1950-51 to 45.144 million ha. in 1989-90. However this increase
was mainly contributed to by the spurt in well irrigation the command area
of which rose from 11.8 million ha. in 1970-71 to 19.90 million ha. by
1 989-90. This increase clearly testifies to the growing intensity of ground
water exploitation for irrigation purposes. Tube-wells along with other
wells (open/dug-wells) account for nearly 50% of the net area irrigated in
the country. A related iact is that of the declining contribution of tanks
in the net area irrigated which fell from 3.6 million ha. in 1950-51 to 3.2
million ha. by 1989-90 which indicatesthe relative neglect of this traditional
irrigation source. Although canal irrigation continues to be the single
largest source of irrigation (accounting for 16.3 million ha. out of a total
of 45.14 m. ha. in 1989-90), water seepage from unlined canals has
reduced the irrigation potential of this source considerably. Siltation of
reservoirs, tanks and other surface irrigation sources, have not only
reduced irrigation potential but also contributed to lessening of the
ground water recharge potential of these surface water sources.
Distribution deficiencies and irrational systems of water use and cropping
patterns have caused the canal/reservoiritank commands to be affected
by salinity and water logging. Most of the aforesaid problems have risen
due to the inadequate attention paid to operations and maintenance
(O&M), and from commercial cropping pattems and increased use of
chemicals in the form of fertilisers and pesticides.
Urban Environmental Problems
6.15 The environmental situation in urban areas needs to be carefully
assessed on account of the growing urban population in India. According
to the 1991 All India Census, 217 million out of the total population of 844
million live in urban areas. It is estimated that by 2000 AD, the urban
population will increase to 300 million. Urbanisation has mainly occurred
due to the structural transformation of Indian economy from an agricultural
one to an industriallservice based one. The in situ birth rates in urban
areas do not, therefore, account for the large urban population in India
since migration from rural areas is considered a major contributorto rural
population growth. However, given the decennial rate of growth of
popuiation in urban areas, it has declined from 46.1% in 1971-81 to
36.2% in 1981-91. There are 23 cities in India with a population of more
102
than a million of which the mega-cities of Bombay, Calcutta, Delhi and
Madras havr populations exceeding 5 million. The number of million plus
cities in India has increased dramatically from 12 in 1981 to 23 in 1991
and it is projected to increase to 40 by 2001 AD. The pressure of the
increasing urban population (notwithstanding the decreasing growth
rate) is bound to increase the gap between demand and supply of
infrastructural services such as energy, housing, transport,
communication, education and institutions, water supply and sewerage
and recreation amenities. The result is the growing trend in the
deterioration of air and water quality, the proliferation of slums, illegal
constructions and undesirable land-use changes, all of which contribute
to urban poverty.
6.16 More specificallythe urban ervironmental problemscan be summed
up as follows
a. high levels of water pollution because of poor waste disposal,
inadequate sewerage and drainage and improper disposal of
industrial effluents;
b. high levels of air pollution resulting from congested streets, poorly
- maintained vehicles, fuel burning, and industrial activities;
c. toxic or hazardous industrial and commercial wastes disposed in
water bodies and land sites without proper treatment;
d. dumping of solid waste (refuse) in low-lying areas contributing to
land and ground water pollution;
e. high levels of noise pollution due to loudspeakers, construction,
traffic, industrial operations and aircraft;
f. congested and insanitary dwellings, particularly in slums;
g. loss of fragile ecosystems, such as wetlands, mangroves,
agricultural land, and vegetation;
h. congestion along roads and transport corridors due to rapid
expansion of transport services in urban cities;
L. growth of slums in and around metropolitan cities of India with its
attendant problems of over-crowding, poor sanitary environment
and respiratory and water borne diseases such as tuberculosis,
meningitis, intestinal parasitic infection, cholera, malaria, bronchitis,
dengue and typhoid;
generation of solid wastes in urban cities which include domestic
solid wastes from households, restaurants, commercial and
industrial solid wastes of non-hazardous nature, and hazardous
wastes from industries, hospitals, research laboratories etc. Most
of the solid wastes get dumped in low-line areas which create
conditions for run-off and as breeding ground for pests and other
disease vector insects;
k. it is estimated that 47% of urban households utilised firewood and
coal for cooking while for another 40% of households gas and
kerosene are the primary sources. These forms of fuels also serve
to breed respiratory diseases particularly among the urban poor
who live in slums; and
I. risks arising out of industrial accidents.
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
6.17 Industrial pollution needs a separate and detailed consideration
mainly because industrial activity in India is getting to be regionally
diversified, instead of being concentrated in urban centres. Also industrial
capacity is fragmented over a number of small units (informal sector).
The increase in the letters of intent and industrial permits to industrially
backward areas in the country during the period from 1982-1991 serves
to underline this fact. It is apparent that industrial pollution will not be
confined to urban centres or to large and medium scale industrial units.
This automatically necessitates a more diversified and decentralised
strategy for industrial pollution control in the country.
6.18 The nature of industrial pollution in India can be gauged from the
following facts. Industrial pollution has resulted In the relatively high
values of carbon mono-oxide nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and
suspended particulate matter in air both in cities as well as in Towns,
details of which have been provided in Tables 4 and 5. The low DO
(dissolved oxygen), high BOD (bio-chemical oxygen demand), Ammonia
and heavy metals along the principal river stretches of India including the
Ganga, has already been discussed in Chapter 2. The protection afforded
to industry and the emphasis on decentralisation of industrial development,
has resulted in the pulp and paper, sugar and distilleries, leather tanning
and chemical industry, mostly belonging to the small scale sector,
resorting to pollution based and energy guzzling technologies. The
conventional end-of-pipe control technologies have not been able to curb
pollution to the desired effect, nor able to achieve reduction in energy
utilisation per unit of output. The absence of ecological zoning and
industrial siting norms has also led to air and water pollution in certain
industrial zones exceeding the limits imposed by the carrying capacity.
The present pattern of industrial activity has also involved the use and
generation of hazardous substances and the generation of non-hazardous
EI
solid wastes such as fly-ash. The storage, dumping and treatment of
these solid wastes is emerging as a major problem In industrial areas in
the country in addition to contributing to pollution and environmental
risks.
ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS OF COMMERCIAL ENERGY,
6.19 Commercial energy sources create environmental problems in two
ways - at the stage of extraction/mining and later during utilisation in
industries. In the eastern region of India, covered by the States of Bihar,
West Bengal and Orissa, considered to be the energy reservoir of the
country, open cast mining of coal, limestone and iron-ore over an area of
0.37 million ha. has contributed to the degradation of soil and run-off of
water and soil. Environmental problems resulting from the utilisation of
commercial sources of energy in industries, agriculture and the services
sector are reflected in the increase in use of these sources of energy.
Thus, the total energy supply in India both commercial and non-
commercial, increased from 82.7 MT.OE in 1950-51 to about 291 MT.OE
in 1990-91. This increase was achieved through a substantial increase
in the use of commercial fuels, the share of which increased from 26% in
1950-51 to 59% in 1990-91. Within the commercial fuels category, the
share of oil and gas has increased during the same period. It has already
been noted that Indian coal suffers from quality problems arising from the
high ash content which not only contributes to lower industrial productivity,
but also creates pollution problems as the thermal power plants in India
denote. The increased use of petroleum as feedstock in Indian industry,
has also added to the pollution problems In the country, primarily by way
of the emissions of sulfur di-oxide, carbon mono oxde, etc. produced by
both stationary (industries, power plants) and non-stationary (public and
private transport) sources of pollution. The problem with hydel power
projects on the other hand lies in its natural resources depleting effects
particularly in bio-diverse areas.
Performance of Electricity Utilities In India and priorities in the Eighth Five Year
Plan
.The financial health of electricity utilities is crucial for the successful
implementation of the power development programme during the Eighth Plan.
"Under the provisions of the Electricity (Supply) Act, 1948, the State Electricity
Boards are required to earn a minimum rate of return of not less than 3% on their fixed
assets after fully meeting the fixed and operating costs and interest and tax liabilities.
However, most of the SEBs have not been able to comply with this statutory requirement.
Many of them have large operating deficits. Apart from operational deficiencies, the
tariff structure of many SEBs continues to be irrational involving heavy subsidies which
promote inefficient use of electricity. In the case of some State Electricity Boards,
despite tnei'good operationalperformance, their financialperformance has deteriorated
in recent years as a resuft of the irrational tariff structure adopted by them.
'it is imperative that the utilities generate adequate resources intemally to be
able to fully cover the fixed and operating costs including interest and other liabilities
and have adequate surplus tor funding their future expansion programmes.
Source: Eighth Five Year Plan 1992-97. Volume II, p. 191
6.20 Given the significance of natural resources in urban/rural
environmental management, it is imperative that these (natural resources)
are properly accounted for, given their intrinsic value and a legal-cum-
programatic framework be formulated. As noted earlier, the legal
framework for sustainable management is basically governed by the
Environment Protection Act, the Water Act, Air Act, the National Forest
Policy, National Conservation Act etc. Though, this framework appears to.
have been comprehensive, it is also noted that the following tasks and
strategies have separate legislations: Conservation/protection of
rangelands, watersheds, ozone layer, climate, culture and systems of
knowledge.
6.21 Also, strategies such as environmental impact assessment,
integrated planning, fiscal and economic measures, efficient use and
recycling of resources, use of alternatives, monitoring, people's
participation and environmental awareness, have at present no legal
sanction though they have been given full recognition and attention.
INTER-RELATIONSHIP OF ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT
PROBLEMS
6.22 The foregoing discussion on the different forms and types of
environmental problems in India, suggests that while it useful to distinguish
development related environmental problems from non-development
related environmental problems, it would be equally significant to
understand the linkages between these two sets of environmental
problems. While the environmental problems of non-availability of safe
drinking water, sanitation, good quality agricultural lands andthe depletion
of forests, mangroves and other biodiversity regimes are the off-shoot of
the central problem of poverty in India, it is equally important to notice
that continuing non-availability of these resources can perpetuate, if not,
increase the problem of poverty in India, through adverse effects of
human health and subsistence. Similarly, the phenomenon of poverty
can ( through adverse health effects and subsistence conditions) be
accentuated by industrial pollution, commercial agriculture, imbalanced
urbanisation and increased utilisation of polluting sources of energy.
6.23 Itis obvious thatdevelopment related environmentalproblems are
essentially inter-related with environmental problems arising from non-
development. Urban and rural poverty are not merely economic
phenomena arising from low levels of per capita income/nutrition.
Poverty is as much induced by environmental factors and is ultimately
linked to the larger question of rural and urban environmental problems
in India.
6.24 It is against this background and diagnosis of the physical aspects
of the problem that the organisational and financial constraints should be
assessed.
EE
ORGANISATIONAL GAPS AND FINANCIAL CONSTRAINTS
6.25 The National Conservation Strategy and Policy Statement on
Environment and Development, 1992 has stressed the need to strengthen
existing institutions, review and evaluate existing laws and develop
enforcement mechanisms to implement the aims and objectives of the
Envionmental Policy for sustainable development. The constitutional,legal
and organisational framework for tackling environmental problems in
India have been already detailed. Though the two sets of environmental
issues have been addressed within this framework and through the
multiple programmes and projects listed in Chapter 5, there have been
certain constraints and organisational gaps. There is no separate
legislation forconservation and protection of lands and the environmentally
critical ecosystems of wetlands, mangroves, coral reefs, range lands,
watersheds, Irrigation command areas. Though, there is a National
Water Policy, legislations for regulating exploitations of surface and
ground water resources are still to be formulated. The issues of global
environmental issues of ozone layer and climate change are also not
addressed in terms of concrete legislation. Presently the omnibus
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, addresses these issues within the
broad provisions of environmental protection. Although, the policy
M
statements are comprehensive in their coverage of natural resources,
there are four notable exceptions. These are for (a) the conservation/
protection of fossil fuels, (b) conservation of mangrqves, and coral reefs,
(c) wetlands and other non-forests natural ecosystems, and (d) policies
for protection of animal rights. The organisational framework for addressing
policy aspects and research in connection with environmenta: issues,
though, comprehensive, needs to be extended in two directions viz.
conservation of range lands and protection of diwerse and traditional
ecological cultures and systems of knowledge or, in short, ethno-ecology.
This situation is the same for the State Governments.
6.26 When looking at the organisational structures for programme
implementation, it is observed that Panchayats and urban local bodies
have not been formally assigned the crucial tasks of conservation and
environment protection. However, following the Circular of the Ministry
of Environment and Forests in June, 1990, participatory management
systems have been established by various State Governments for
managing degraded forest lands. There now remains the larger task of
integrating these participatory systems to the panchayats/urban local
bodies at the local levels, in addition to extending the ambit of popular
participation to other natural resources such as mangroves, coral reefs,
wetlands, common grazing lands and community sacred groves etc. The
- EH
National River Action Plan to be shortly launched in India will also
necessitate evolving novel local participatory structures for managing
river water quality and maintaining rivers in environmentally sound
conditions. The Constitutional status recently accorded to the rural and
urban local self Governments have underlined the urgency of these
priorities.
6.27 The task of decision making has also been cumbersome particularly
on environmental issues. Although, detailedguidelinesforenvironmental
impact assessment have been framed by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests for various categories of natural resources and development
projects, the actual process of decision making has been constrained not
only because of perceptions of need for quick development but also for
want of environmental data on resources availability, systems of traditional
use and values for different categories of natural resources including
land, water, biodiversity, marine resources, forests and air. Accounting
for the intrinsic value of natural resources is still a process in its infancy.
Human resources formations for the scientific management of
environmental problems have also been constrained because of
inadequate research and developmient infrastructure, the absence of
organisations, which are capable of imparting technical skills for
environmental management (such as environment impact assessment) at
ES
the local and regional levels, the limitations of environmental education
at higher secondary,university and non-formal levels in generating public
awareness, and the insufficient spread of training in environmental
sciences/management for policy makers, administrators ,trainers,
educators,students, local self-Governments authorities and grassroot
voluntary/activist individuals and organisations.
6.28 The process of fiscal consolidation which is taking place in India,
has, and already mentioned at the outset, has constricted large scale
publc investment even in the critical infrastructure sectors such as
energy and transport. The task of incorporating environmental
considerations in development projects requires even larger levels of
investment resources. The scope of public investment being rather
limited, there is a need to attract private and external sources of financing
for carrying out the crucial tasks of ensuring conservation and sustainable
development.
6.29 Programme deficiencies reflected in weak tardy programme
implementation is an issue which requires special attention. It should
also be noted that environment impact assessment of urban and rural
environmental management is constrained by information/data
deficiencies which arise because of non-accounting of natural resources
and environmental quality parameters. A further problem comes from the
inadequacy of funding of environment activities and the lack of a variety
of fiscal instruments to tackle environmental problems. At present, the
fiscal tool for environmental protection is the Cess Act and certain fiscal
concessions for use of pollution control equipment. There are also
deficiencies of nigh quality human resources and organisations to
undertake the task of environment protection at the local and regional
levels. This is caused by the lack of an environmental education network
in the country. Skilled human resources for tackling the problems of
industrial pollution, hazardous substances management and for
implementing technologies for wastelands management, have to be
developed and nurtured.
6.30 The gains from a reduction in the rate of population growth, infant
mortality and birth rates can be sustained only if greater efforts are
directed to the eradication of the existing scale poverty in the country by
ensuring ..lat the poorer sections have better access to land resources
and/or employment opportunities. A more effective delivery of social
services such as drinking water, sanitation, health facilities and education
for the large urban and rural populations in the country will serve to
upgrade the quality of life of India's human popuiation. These services
wi!l reduce the incidence of diseases and mortality and-thereby create
FES
social conditions which would ultimately bring down human fertility rates
to the level of replacement. In addition, development has produced its
adverse effects on the poor by causing their natural resource base to be
eroded or removed, and also affected the poor in rural and urban areas
in terms of their health and ability to work.
EE~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
PRIORITIES
/ ~~~~PRIOkRNIES
7.01 The task of integrating environmental concerns in India's quest for
economic development is not as complicated as may appear at first sight.
Eradication of poverty, stabilisation of the population growth rate and
greater employment opportunities by themselves would serve to
qualitatively improve India's environment. Access of the urban and rural
poor to basic civic amenities such as housing, sanitation and safe
drinking water can not be a reality unless they are endowed with sufficient
purchasing power on a sustained basis. There is clearly a strong case, as
has been made out in the Eighth Five Year Plan Document for further
strengthening India's direct intervention programmes for poverty
alleviation exemplified in the Integrated Rural Development Programme
(IRDP), the National Rural Employment Programme (NREP), the Rural
Landless EmploymentGeneration Programme (RLEGP) andtheTRYSEM
Programme. There is an equally compelling need to further streamline
our health care and family welfare schemes to ensure eradication of
water/air borne communicable diseases, better health delivery services
to the poorto enable them perform labourfor a livelihood. The Eighth Five
Year Plan also stresses the need to extend the Urban and Rural Drinking
, EH
and allied activities, development of biotechnology industries in India,
low cost indigenous systems of medicine and treatment hignhig hted in the
Eighth Five Year Plan and the National Health Policy and finally for the
preservation of the traditional lifestyles of tribal population in the country.
The All-India Coordinated Research Project on Ethnobiology of the
Ministry of Envimnment and Forests has surveyed and inventorised more
than 1000 plant and animal species used by the tribal population in India
for medicinal and other consumptive purposes which need carefully
conservation. The ongoing programmes of conservation and survey
implemented by the Ministry of Environment and Forests need further
strenghtening to facilitate tapping of the 'option valuen of the biodiversity
contained in the country's natural forests, protected areas, wetlands,
mangroves and coral reefs.
B. Afforestation, Wasteland Development Conservation of Soil
and Moisture and ensuring that water sources are not polluted.
7.04 Focus on this area would reverse the trends of deforestation and
over-grazing imposed by subsistence and industral pressures on forests,
ensure sustainable agricultural and water harvesting practices by small
and marginal farmers, in the semi-arid, arid and humid regions of India.
The major thrust of area based poverty alleviation programmes such as
Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP), Desert Development Programme
(DDP) and the Afforestation Programmes of the National Afforestation
and Ecodevelopment Board and the National Wastelands Development
Board, the National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed
Agriculture, the All India Coordinated Project on Rainfedi Agriculture,
Ravine Reclamation Programmes, Command Area Development
Programme, Soil Conservation in Catchments of River Valley Projects
Programmes and the Centrally Sponsored Operations 'Soil Watch'
Programmes in the Himalayas being on soil and water conservation.
these programmes would receive special attention and tine tuning.
Drought Proofing Measures
The drought of 1987 caused by the failure of south-west monsoon over large
parts of the country was one of the worst in the century. However, the measures
adopted by the Government to tackle the drought were commendable in terms of a
number of innovative measures to provide relief to the drought affected areas.
Employment generation, provision of drinking water, fodder availability, supplv of
essential commodities and drought proofing were identified by the Government of India
forproviding relief to drought effected areas. It is significant to note that special stress
was laid down by the Government to ensure that employment generation works result
in drought proofing. With this purpose in mind the Government of India laid down the
following order of priority for selection of works for drought proofing viz., provision of
tube-wells, rehabilitation/restoration/digging of ponds, repairing field channels, promoting
soil conservation and water harvesting works and laying of roads where road links did
not exist. (The Drought of 1987 - Response and Management, (/ntroductica), Volume
I, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India - [1989J)
7.05 The stress on soil and water conservation in the En:ironment
Action Programme needs also to be evaluated in its signilicance to
drought proofing and management of natural disasters.
Water Missions to the remaining 3000 'no-source', 'hard-core' villages
and small towns with population upto 20,000. Drinking water availability
in the part;ally covered villages, also need to be further upgraded. The
proposed thrust In the Eighth Plan on total environmental sanitation In
rural and urban areas and on effective and scientific mechanisms for the
collection, transportation and disposal of solid wastes in metropolitan
cities, is also a welcome direction from the environmental point of view.
7.02 While these programmes would be helpful in creating effective
demand for and an increase in the supply of basic services for poverty
alleviation, the seven priority areas listed in the 'Introductory Chapter'
also need to be addressed to (a) improve the efficacy of anti-poverty and
other related basic service programmes in the Eighth Five Year Plan and
(b) mitigate in the interim, the adverse environmental effects of poverty
in rural and urban areas. The raison d'etre for choosing these priority
areas are enumerated below:-
A. Conservation of and sustainable utilization of blodiversity In
selected eco-systems Including forests, mangroves, wetlands,
coral reefs, mountain ecosystems.
7.03 This is a priority area from the angles of the conservation of
genetic, species and ecosystem diversity, for the sustainable agriculture
7.06 Mention also needs to be made of the ongoing schemes for eco
restoration of wetlands through Management Action Plans, such as the
proposed initiative for rehabilitation of 14 lakes in the country under the
National Lakes Conservation Plan and the European Community assisted
Tank Modernisation Programme in Tamil Nadu.Besides their ecological
and economic significance,these projects also aid in the re-charge of
ground water aquifers. Further, a streamlined programme for soil and
water conservation can also ensure that beneficiary based poverty
alleviation programmes such as the IRDP (particularly livestock based
assistance projects) also acquire effectiveness in terms of lower
Incremental Capital- Output Ratios (ICOR). The final output would be
more biomassforfuel and fodder needs, safe drinking water, augmentation
of depleting ground water resources and substantial employment-
opportunities for the rural and urban poor.
C. Control of Industrial and related pollution with an accent on
the reduction and/or management of wastes, particularly
hazardous wastes.
7.06 Pollution control strategies through waste minimisation would be a
qualitative improvement and would complement the on-going effort for
achieving air and water pollution control through better emission/effluent
LIJ
treatment systems. The World Bank-assisted Industrial Pollution Control
and Pollution Prevention Projects need to be suitably extended to cover
all the critically polluting industrial sectors in India by covering more
regions/States. Utilisation of solid wastes is a top priority in India given
the multiplier effects such utilisation processes can ensure in the form of
industrial activities and employment. A case in point is fly-ash, which as
has been noted, offers potential for self-employment and would provide
a major tillip to our housing industry and the ambitious National Housing
Plan.
Pollution abatement programme In India - Present efforts & future directions
It is not enough for the Government to notify laws which are to be compried with. A
positive attitude on the part of everyone in society is essential for the prevention of pollution and
wiae consultation has been held with those who wl ultimately inplement the pocy.
A comprehensive approach is taken to integrate environental and economc aspects
M; ;~ u - >we;b;,;;;-c >;5;u< W*;ntand
promotion of techndobgical inputs to reduce industrial pollutants; and through relance upon
public cooperation in secunng a cdean environment to respond to the coming challanges.
The obfective is to integrate environmental considerations into decision making at all
level To achieve this, steps have to be taken to:
- prevent polktn at source;
- encourage, develop and apply the best availabe practicable technical solutions;
- ensure that the polkter pays for the polluion and controdaanents;
- kous protection on heaviy polluted areas and river stretches; and
- iwolve the publc in decisn making.
'ndia - Polcy Statement for Abatement of Pollution - 1992: Government of India, Ministy of
Enironment B Forests.
D. Improving Access to Clean Technologies.
7.07 Pollution prevention is evolving as a top priority both on account of
the growing scarcity of raw materials, and the need to adhere to global
environmental norms on products and processes. The growing
phenomenon of energy shortages has also impelled a greater accent on
clean technologies which are also energy conserving in nature.
E. Tackling urban environmental Issues.
7.08 In India ,the urban sector contributed 47% of the Gross Domestic
Product (GDP)in 1980-81 and is likely to increase to 60% by 2001 A.D,
hence the significance of addressing urban environmental issues. The
growing urban population in the country,its concentration in Class 1 and
metropolitan cities of the country, the increasing phenomenon of urban
poverty, air and water pollution and the rapidly deteriorating urban
infrastructure such astransport, electricity, sanitation, health and housing
necessitate a broad-based strategy based on multiple policy
instruments,including the economic ones of taxation and pricing. New
policies for institutionalising citizen participation in environmental
protection measures have also to be conceived against the background
of the Constitutional establishment of Urban Local Bodies and the
increasing interventions for tackling of urban environmental issues. The
ongoing World Bank assisted Metropolitan Environment Improvement
Programmes in Madras and Bombay need to be extended to other
metropolitan Cities. Special attention also needs to be paid to Class I &
Class 11 Towns, particularly those on the verge of rapid industrialisation.
Conserving the vestiges of wetlands, mangroves and other unique habitats
in India's cities and upcoming towns is also crucial. Also considering the
enormous strain on the available natural resources of water in the
country, it is necessary to protect the existing water resources from
pollution so that the quality parameters of the natural resources are
maintained for the coming generation to the desired degree of its usage.
F. Strengthening scientific understanding of environmental
Issues, as well as structures for training at different levels,
orientation and creating environmental awareness, resources
assessment, water management problems etc.
7.09 The National Policy on Education (NPE) 1986 as revised in 1992
stipulates that "There is a paramount need to create a consciousness of
the environment. It must permeate all ages and all sections of society,
beginning with the child. Environmental consciousness should inform
teaching in schools and colleges. This aspect will be integrated in the
entire educational process". In a recent judgement the Supreme Court of
India has also ordered that every State Government and Education Board
should take immediate steps to enforce compulsory education on
environment in a gradual way. In keeping with the NPE and the Court
order, the National Commission for Education Research & Training
(NCERT) and almost all of the State Governments/Boards of Secondary
Education have modified and updated theirtextbooks to include topics on
the environment at different levels. The University Grants Commission
(UGC) is also examining the possibility of making environment education
an integral part of the undergraduate courses as well as starting new
courses on environment.
7.10 Apart from environmental education, for sustainable development
to be institutionalised, there is a need to develop a strong, legal,
administrative, organisational, technical, and popular framework. This
would necessitate overcoming the present gaps by nurturing and
developing human resources at the scientific, technical, policy/decision
making, programme implementation and public levels. The broad
programme for human resource development would involve environmental
education for awareness amongst the public, environmental training for
the policy/decision makers and administrators, imparting of skills in the
areas of environmental management and impact assessment to develop
technical personnel in these areas in various parts of the country, and the
establishment of research and development, Infrastructure lor the
collection of scientific/statistical data on natural/environmental resources.
G. Alternative Energy Plan
7.11 Commercial fuels such as coal, oil and lignite, suffer from quality
deficiencies and also cause air water and other types of pollution.
Further, commercial fuels notably oil (hydro-carbons) impose a huge
burden in terms of foreign exchange requirements. The agricultural
based non-commercial fuels are not energy efficient and firther create
health problems amongst its users, i.e. the urban and rural poor. The
overriding priority for protecting forests also rule out the use of wood
fuels on a large scale. There is also the priority programme for reduction
of emissions from the non-stationary transport sector, arising from use of
leaded petrol. The increasing inefficiency of energy utilisation in the
agricultural sector expressed in the form of wasteful use of high-speed
diesel and electricity in irrigation operations is another major problem.
On the other hand, the inability to cap the flaring of natural gas which is
a clean source of fuel is a glaring deficiency which needs to be attended
to alongwith programmes for utilisation of alternative energy sources
such as improved cooking stoves, coal washing and beneficiation and the
utilisation of solar, wind-power and bio-gas. This would be in addition to
E2R
the on-going efforts for better and Improved utilisation of existing
commercial sources of energy such as coal and oil and efforts being
made to reduce transmission and distribution losses in our electricity
supply systems.
H=j
a
STRATEGY
8 ST RATEGY
8.01 It is necessary to lay down an integrated strategy based on
economic policies, institutional development and efficient norms of project
implementation to ensure that the priority areas identified previously get
properly implemented. Economic policies for implementing sustainable
development programmes will determine the trajectory of sustainable
development. Accordingly, in identifying an economic strategy for
implementing the Environmental Action Programme, it will be necessary
to assess the economic instruments available under the prevailing
macro-economic regime and also delineate the tasks of sustainable
development thrown up by the regime.
8.02 The on-going process of economic reforms in India has fundamental
implications on the strategy to be adopted for implementing the
Environment Action Programme, prioritised in terms of the seven areas
mentioned in the previous Chapters. As noted at the outset, the process
of industrial deregulation initiated in recent years is bound to accelerate
the process of industrialisation, both in the conventional industrial zones
of the country, as well as new zones, categorised as industrially
backward areas. This fact coupled with the significance accorded to
exports in India's economic reforms, may impact on environment basically
in the following manner:
a. the pollution load in air, water and land is bound to increase in the
absence of firm pollution control measures;
b. the pressure on forests and other biomes will also intensify in terms
of diversion of these eco-systems for industrial projects and
infrastructural facilities, such as power plants, mines, etc.;
c. the relatively slow pace at which the power and the oil sectors are
expanding, is bound to create demand pressures on energy
resources; and
d. environmental standards laid down on exports from India will
necessitate that our traditional export industries, such as leather
and textiles shift to higher quality and environmentally friendly
processes and products.
8.03 It is apparent that the impact of the evolving macro-economic
framework will be mixed insofar as our environmental priorities are
concerned. The accent should be to ensure that the potential adverse
environmental effects of the new economic policy regime are minimised
E,i
This can be achieved through the intensification of industrial and non-
industrial pollution control measures, while'at the same time facilitating
a process of switch over by our small scale industries to cleaner production
processes and technologies at the least social cost. The use of
concessional lines of credit for waste minimisation and for adoption of
cleaner production processes as is being done through the World Bank
assisted Industrial Pollution Control and Pollution Prevention Projects is
another complementary approach.
8.04 The Tax Reform Committee set up by the Government of India has
underlined the significance of India's tax system having a broader tax
base and a lower tax rate. The present commitment of the Government
of India to progressively reduce the rate of corporate tax for the different
categories of industries is based on this recommendation. There are
already fiscal incentives for environmental protection in the form of an
exemption from the corporate tax for undertaking programmes of
conservation on natural resources,wood substitution, accelerated
depreciation norms for industrial units which have installed devices and
systems for minimnising environmental pollution and conservation of
natural resources. In fact, the Union Budget for the year 1992-93 had
provided 100% depreciation for energy saving devices and renewable
energy devices. The reductton of customs duties is also designed to
facilitate technology upgradation in export oriented industries, including
leatherwhich is an environmentally sensitive industry. As the programme
for tax reforms and customs duty reduction are to be implemented over a
period of 3 - 4 years from now, it is expected that the process of providing
fiscal incentives for environmental protection will be further strengthened
to facilitate accessing and absorption of clean technologies in industries.
A number of other steps initiated to reduce current expenditure have the
potential for positive environmental benefits.
8.05 The use of the tax base for environmental protection in India has
to evolve further. Charges are the main source of revenue for
environmental protection. The Cess levied on the consumption of water
by industries and other local authorities is the best example. The Water
Cess which is levied underthe Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution)
Cess Act, 1977, provides for the levy and collection of a Cess on water
consumed by certain industries and other local authorities. The rates of
the Cess vary depending on the purpose for which water is consumed.
The Water Cess is basically intended to augment the resources of the
Central and State Pollution Control Boards which have been constituted
for environmental protection In India under the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974. The Cess Act also provides for rebates
to any industry/authority which installs any plant for the treatment of
sewage or trade effluent. During the year 1991-92, the actual collection
of Cess by the 31 State Governments/Union Territories of India was
Rs.7.63 crores. The rate structure for the various categories of water use
have also been revised upwards.The future strategy will be to (a) improve
the rate of Cess collection from all categories of industrial units, rather
than confine collections to thermal power stations, integrated steel
plants, fertilizer plants, petroleum refineries, etc., and (b) extend the
ambit of the Cess to cover more sectors in the rural areas including
agriculture aftercarefully assessing the implications. A broad-based and
streamlined system of water charges will complement the programmes to
be strengthened or launched under the EAP in the areas of conservation
of soil and water resources and water quality. In order to encourage the
investments from the community in water supply and sanitation sector,
the principle of self-sustainability of the investment has been propagated
and with regard to the natural water resources, the principle of
sustainability of its quality has been recognised. In this regard, removal
of pollution caused by the urban areas require due attention.
Economk Instruments for Environmental Proectin
While regulatory measures remain essential for the effectiveness of the policy, new
approaches for considering market choices will be introduced. The aim is to give industries and
consumers clear signals about the cost of using environmental and natural resources. The
expectation is that market-orientedprice mechanisms will influerce beha viourtoavoid excessive
use of natural resources.
There are at present several fiscal incentives for installation of pollution control
equipment and forshifting polluting industnes from congested areas. The items for which excise
and customs rebate are allowed will be reviewed. This wil stimnulate the advancement of
abatement technolbgies and create increased demands for the products.
Economic instruments wili be investigated to encourage the shift from curative to
preventive measu.ss intemalise the costs of pollution and conserve ressirces, patficulady
water. A diract sconomic signal:s offeted by an effluentcharge based on Mhe nature and volume
of releases to the environment The level will be based on the cost of treatmenr and the flow
discharged, in orderto provide an incentive to set-up treatrmnt plants. The scope of the charges
will also be extended to emissions and so/id waste. Charges provide a contiuing incentive
towards opnimal releases.
These instrnments wiU also have a distributive effect as the revenues will be used for
enforcement, collectie treatment, faciNties, research and prototing new investment.
Theprecise choice of economic instruments adopted wilbe determinedby the ease with
which releases can be measured, as well as prospective changes in technology and market
strudures. To deal with the range of pollution probkms a ma of regulatory and economic
mfieasures will be adopted.
Policy Statenent on Abatement of Pollution, Government of India
8.06 As the process of institutionalising sustainable development gets
underway consequent to the EAP process, it would be possible to
develop atax base forenvironmental protection in the country. While the
endeavour to broad base revenue sources and increase revenue
collections would be taken up in the manner described, there would also
be a simultaneous effort to ensure that conservation and natural resources
development programmes as prioritised in the previous chapter are
achieved even in terms of reduced investment resources targetting of
such resources to management systems and user groups which can
ensure better delivery of benefits and/or ensure sustainable consumption
norms. As already noted, the task of institutionalising sustainable
development is a major one since It would mean attending to the gaps and
infirmities in the existing legal, administrative, organisational, technical
and popular framework forthe development and environmental protection
in the country. Setting up more scientific research and development
institutions and technical institutes forstudies in environmental sciences
can substantially raise the volume of human capital having capabilities in
environmental impact assessment and management. Training
programmes for administrators, policy makers, trainers and scientists
can also strengthen environmental management and decision making.
Streamlined programmes for environmental awareness could lead to
better programme implementation at the local level, in addition to
contributing to a better information base on local inventory of natural
resources and systems of use, both of which are important for physical
and non-market valuation of natural resources. All these programmes for
organisational development would entail standardisation of information
on environmental matters, including guidelines on environment impact
assessment and other technical parameters.
8.07 In otherwords, the institutional strategyforsustainable development
under this Environment Action Programme has as its chief objective,
strengthening the environment impact assessment process by creating
the base for drawing up 'Regional' Environmental Impact Assessment
profiles based on studies of carrying capacity and regional/local siting
plans through a process of popular participation. Environmental statistics
and a scientific system of natural resource accounting is likely to become
the wherewithal for the regional and local systems of EIA. The broad
programme for human resource development would involve environmental
research, education and training for developing technical, administrative
and practical skills for a regional and local systems of Environment
Impact Assessment in the country based on a scientific system of
statistical data collection. Since industrial projects are being located in
the traditional no-industrial zones, there is also a necessity for compiling
information for careful risk analysis and hazard identification through a
well identified, decentralised systems of information, collection and
generation at the site level.
8.08 Environment Impact Assessment and Natural Resources Accounting
would form the underlying foci for the seven priority areas identified in
this Action Programme. All programmes of conservation and development
which have been identified in this Document for the seven priority areas
will be evaluated and monitored in terms of a comprehensive EIA framework
and a scientific system of Natural Resources Accounting. The performance
of the Environment Action Programme (a dynamic process) itself would
be assessed, amongst other factors, (such as the success of the different
projects and programmes as identified here) in terms of its success in
transforming the Environment Impact Assessment into a basic tool of
decision making at the national, regional and local levels and in the
establishment of systems of Natural Resource Accounting and developing
Environmental Statistics for the seven priority areas.
8.09 Trade-related strategies: Apart from considering the environmental
issues arising from India's on-going economic reforms, it is imperative to
look at the possible fall-out of the impact of global environmental
agreements and conventions and national environmental policies on
India's exports. A number of countries have adopted trade related
environmental measures with implications on productprocess standards,
packaging and labelling of export merchandise. These measures which
have the impact of non-tariff barriers need to be tackled through improved
product/process quality. The accent given to clean technologies in the
Environment Action Programme and the emphasis given on modernising
India's export industries such as leather and textiles stems also from this
priority. Focus is necessary on the aspect of development of natural
dyes, the existing programmes for phasing out toxic pesticides and
pesticide formulations and the modernisation programmes of the
integrated steel plants in India. It would be also important to initiate
research and studies in India for evaluating the impact of global
environmental agreements, trade related environmental measures and
packaging and labelling requirements of developed export markets on
India. These measures are significant to ensure the success of the
reformed trade policies touched upon at the introductory chapter.
8.10 Refashioned economic instruments and legal, organisational and
popular structures combined with effective programme implementation
would ensure the realisation of the two fundamental goals of the
Environment Action Programme, viz. improved provisioning of
environmental services and integration of environmental considerations
into the programmes for economic development. Efficient norms for
programme implementation would form the basic strategy of the
Environment Action Programme.
8.11 In line with the diagnostic exercise which identified the existing
sectoral infrastructure both-organisational and non-organisational, the
treatment of the subject wiMl be in the strategy through capacity building
and strengthening of all the organisations both old and new, and also
through a programmatic approach to monitoring and execution of projects
for the conservation of natural resources and environment protection.
This process has been initiated from the time when the Departmental/
Ministry for environment and forests was established. A great deal of
progress was achieved especially in the last two Five Year Plans periods
in building up capacities in scientific institutes and In improving
environmental awareness. A substantial amount of investment has also
gone into efforts to vegetate areas, protect forests and other eco-
systems, check industrial pollution, and study the impact of investments
on conservation in these areas. The process continues with greater
vigour in the context of the developing thinking on sustainable
development. This has resulted in greater interest in such schemes on
the international scene. The adoption of Agenda 21 in Rio de Janeiro in
1992 and parallel developments in the Conventions of Biodiversity,
Transboundary Boundary of Hazardous Wastes,Forests,Climate
Change,the Montreal Protocol on Substances Depleting the Ozone Layer
are parts of this effort. This has led to the evolution of schemes in the
Government of India both on organisational and non-organisational
aspects. A sample of this is in the 29 projects posed for GEF
and Capacity 21 of UNDP, which are outlined in the following
paragraphs:
;~~~~~~~~ Ei70L
8.12 Global Environmental Facility
a. cost effective technologies for limiting Green House Gas (GHG)
emissions;
b. demonstration of sustainable alternatives to shifting cultivation;
C. developing of bio energy from industrial municipal and agricultural
wastes;
d. mini-hydel development projects for hilly regions;
e. eco-development projects in national parks, sanitations and
protected areas;
f. special pilot activity in the field of Environment Education;
g. establishing an Internationa! Ocean Institute in India;
i. development of Least cost GHG Emission reduction Plan in Asia.
j. Marine Pollution in Sea around India; and
k. Oil Spill Combatment Training Centre in Institute of Petroleum
Study and Environment Management.
8.13 Capacity 21
Potential projects which have been submitted for possible capacity
21 support include:
a. strengthening of Centre for Environment Education, Ahmedabad;
b. strengthening of M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation, Madras.;
c. strengthening of Uttara Khand Sewa Nidhi, Almora;
d. strengthening of Indira Gandhi lIstitute of Development Research
(IGIDR), Bombay;
e. strengthening of Auroville Foundation, Pondicherry;
f. Centre for Environmental Law, World Wide Fund (WWF) India;
g. strengthening of G.B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and
Development, Katarmal, Almora, Uttar Pradesh;
h. strengthening of Centre for Environment Management at the Indian
Institute of Management. Calcutta, West Bengal;
i. proposal for the Integrated Forestry and Agricultural Development
in Nagaland;
j. strengthening of Animal Welfare Board, Madras, Tamil Nadu:
k. strengthening of Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural
History (SACON), Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu;
1. strengthening of Natural History Society (BNHS), Bombay,
Maharashtra;
m. establishment of a Centre for Integrated Environmental
epidemiological Studies;
n. establishment of a Centre for Training in the Preparation of
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) reports:
0. strengthening of Capacity in the Forest Sector;
p. strengthening of Bharatiya Adijati Sewak Sangh;
q. strengthening of VIKSAT, Ahmedabad, Gujarat; and
r. strengthening of the Environmental Information System (ENVIS),
and the developing of a National Economic - Ecologic Database
(NEED).
8.14 While the above strategy and programmes will be followed within
our planning framework and keeping in view resources available from
the sections. the seven priorities mentioned in the document will be
unchanged in the short-term.
7_7
Rs
PROGRAMMES
9 PROGRAMMES
9.01 The priority action programmes under the Environment Action
Programme include not only the programmes and projects listed in
Chapter 5, but also certain new thrust items and projects both of
organisational and non-organisational nature. Thest new items and
projects, listed below, fall within the framework of the Eighth Five Year
Plan.
9.02 In the Alternative Energy Plan area; the priority programmes will be
as follows:-
Energyv
a. In the Coal Sector
- projects for coal beneficiation;
- coal bed methane;
- projects for coal gasification; and
- project to tackle coal mine fires.
b. Power Sector
reduction of transmission and distribution losses in power sector;
* -ER~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
demonstration projects on energy efficient lighting;
evaluation studies on performance of pollution control measures in
Thermal Power Stations; and
assessment studies of ongoing R&M, uprating and life extension
schemes.
c. Transport Sector:
programmes for shifting from road to rail in freight movement;
- promotion of mass rapid transport systems;
conversion of two-stroke to four-stroke engines in 2 wheeler
and 3-wheeler vehicles; and
introduction of Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) in the transport
sector.
d. Industrial Sector
programmes for promotion of energy conservation in industries;
capacity building for EIA for thermal and hydel power plants';
and
building natural resources accounting system for commercial fuels.
143
e. Alternative Energy Sector
strengthening programmes for rapid diffussion, demonstration
research and monitoring of new and alternative sources of energy
(for reasons adduced in Appendix-X);
research on the design of energy-efficient electric and diesel
pumpsets;
programme of ccnverting agricultuie waste to fertilizer;
integrated pest arrangement;
formulating policy measures and incentives to facilitate wind power
generation;
organisation strengthening for wind power generation;
research for indigenisation of wind electric generation system;
development of power capacity from small hydel projects;
capacity building fordesigning and managing decentralised energy
plans*;
formulation of alternative strategy for biogas implementation;
designing effective Biogas Technology delivery systems;
evolving design criteria for improved Cookstoves. -capacity building
for EIA of energy use in rural areas;
- product development and market research for solar hot water
systems ; and
resource accounting systems for non-commercial energy sources
in rural areas.
Urban Environmental Programmes
9.03 The priority programmes foraddressing urban environmental issues
are :
- strengthening of 'Building Materials and Technology Promotion
Council' to provide a platform for technology transfer and application
in the shelter sector. and promoting commercial production of
innovative materials, using fly-ash, red mud, phospho-gypsum and
agricultural wastes, and for appropriate design of houses both in
urban and rural areas-;
strategies for bringing down the solid waste generation in cities
with focus on those which are di'ficult to dispose of such as tube
lights,used battery cells etc.;
designing fiscal instruments 'cr waste minimisation in respect of
non-biodegradable and non-recyclable packaging materials used
for packaging of food products, medicines, soft driAks,-machine
parts, oils, breakables, etc.;
development projects for developing biodegradable packaging
materials through the Eco-Mark scheme and through fiscal
incentives;
design innovations for improving the refuse vehicles;
formulation of plans for assessing space requirements for solid
waste treatment;
rehabilitation of ragpickers;
protection of natural water sources - surface/sub-surface to meet
the needs of its water users/usages;
health services with focus on health education, awareness and
health risk assessment;
managing storm drains in cities;
progammes for energy efficiency in street lighting;
alternative energy programmes and energy efficiency in urban
areas;
- 4:
formulation of pricing policies for promoting energy conservation;
policies to promote public transport through;
introducing innovative fiscal instruments to finance the public
transport projects to charge the entire range of beneficiaries rather
than only the direct-users;.
improving the financial performance of the State Road Transport
Corporations;
reviewing the provisions in the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 under
which the fare revisions require legislative approvals each time
which leads to delays and political;
improving public distribution system fc. kerosene;
increasing the use of coal in urban areas through introduction of
methods such as fluidised bed processing or pelletisation for
smoke reduction and improving the thermal properties. This
programme could be successfully linked to the proposed programme
of improved cookstoves;
preparation of energy audits for each city;
road pricing practices for overcoming congestion;
- ~~EE
framing enabling housing policy;
setting up monitoring system for air pollution control;
protection of urban amenities such as public parks, beaches and
wetlands;
erection and strengthening of urban forests;
formulation of city level environmental management plans;
organisation strengthening for NGO participation in urban
environmental management'; and
organisation strengthening for human resource development and
capacity building for pollution control, waste management, natural
resource accounting, risk assessment and environment impact
assessment in urban areas*.
Conservation and sustainable development of blo-diversity In
selected eco-systems Including forests, mangroves, wetlands, coral
reefs and mountain ecosystems.
9.04 The priority programmes and actions in these areas include:-
- research to evaluate ecological importance, biotic potential,
conservation value of Wetlands, Mangroves and Coral Reefs;
survey of protected wetlands (existing and proposed);
afforestatlon and wasteland development;
programmes forsustainable management of man-made waterbodies
such as reservoirs, urban tanks and village ponds, percolation and
irrigation tanks, etc.;
conservation education on wetlands, mangroves and coral-reefs;
natural resources accounting studies for coral reefs, forests,
mangroves , wetlands, protected areas and biodiversity;
demand management development projects to improve protection
of newly afforested areas/areas undergoing natural regeneration;
research and development on bio-energy programmes i.e. high-
density energy plantations and efficient fuel-wood use systems by
organisational strengthening of Indian Council of Forestry Research
and Education, Dehra Dun;
development programmes for pasture regeneration;
wildlife projects particularly Project Elephant and Project Rhino;
extension support projects for agro-forestry;
networking of the Zoological Survey of India (ZSIy and Botanical
Survey of India(BSI) with universities and other non-governmental
organisatlons;
developing a comprehensive national listing of all phyla, genus,
species and sub-species with their location, distribution, description
and status;
develop a detailed listing of fauna of ecologically important locations
including protected areas;
research on cultivation of commercially valuable wild plants;
- establishment of farms for medicinal and other commercially
valuable plants;
research on various species of domesticated animals for
conservation of traditional domesticated species, many of which
are being replaced by hybrid, modern, breeds; and
support for ex-situ consumed in zoological and botanical
gardens.
Control of Industrial and related pollution with accent on reduction
and/or management of wastes, particularly hazardous wastes
9.05 The priority actions and programme will be
modernisation for cleaner production in respect of leather, textiles,
paper and pulp industries;
organisation strengthening for research on natural dyes-;
development of techniques for quantification of pollutants from
non-point sources viz. runoff from agricultural fields, waste disposal
sites, leaky septic tanks systems, mining and logging activities and
construction sites;
development of physical methodsfor ascertaining the role hydrology
plays in influencing pollutant behaviour; relating landuse to pollutant
transport and effects on water bodies; addressing spatial (single
catchment, multiple catchments) and temporal (annual, event,
based, continuous) variability in pollutant generation, transport
and delivery; and relating contaminant concentrations to
management practices;
development of decision-oriented methods to help make reliable
and cost effective decision about nonpoint sources of pollution
control methods and their cost and relating contaminant
concentration to management practices;
development of technologies for control of non-point pollution as a
result of past land use practices;
EE7C
development and demonstration of cost-effective water treatment
technologies particularly for removal of nitrates, pesticides and
heavy metals from drinking water, desalination of brackish water
and providing solution to taste and odour problems;
demonstration and dissemination of wastewate rtreatment recycling
and reuse technologies for water conservation; and
projects for least hazardous methods of mining, control of erosion
in mining areas, proper storage of minerals, and proper disposal of
mineral wastes in mined areas, prevention and control of pollution
from roads in mining areas, prevention and control of pollution in
post-mining period, water diversion to prevent contamination of
water and environmental rehabilitation of mined areas.
Environmental Statement for Environmental Audit in India
A gazette notification on environmental audit had been issued by the Ministry of
Environment 8 Forests on 3th March, 1992 (amended vide notification GSR 386 (E)
dated 22 April, 1993). This notification applies to every person carrying on an industry,
operation or process requiring consent to operate under Section 25 of the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974) or under section 211 of the
Air(Prevention and Controlof Pollution) Act, 1981 (14 of 1981), orboth, or, authorization
under the Hazardous Wastes (Management and Handling) Rules, 1989, issued under
the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986). The notification requires that an
Environmental Statement for the financialyear ending the 31st March be submitted to
the concerned State Pollution Control Board, on or before the 30th September of the
same year.
In the Environmental Statement, every industry will provide informnation on the
water and raw material consumption, pollution generated, information on hazardous
wastes and solid wastes along with the disposal practices. The industries are also
152
required to specify the impact of pollution control measures on conservation of natural
resources.
This information will assist the industry in determining the cost of production
and additional investment forenvironmentalprotection includingabatementofpollution.
To maintain confidentiality of certain inputs, a provision for coding has been made.
'India: Environmental Statement (As part of Fnvironmental Audit) Government of
India, 1993.
Access to Clean Technologies
9.06 In order to increase access to clean technologies, the following
programmes would be given priority :-
organisation strengthening for research and technology
development under the National Materials Initiatives under Industrial
development programme for raw material upgradation, performance
improvement in conventional materials, energy substitution and
conservation and environmental sustainability under the Science
& Technology Programme under the Industrial Sector*;
launching of a Technology Mission on Cleaner Production to
coordinate activities for promoting cleaner technologies in India
through government policies, strengthening of R&D Institutions,
industry associations, financial institutions and regulatory
agencies.
- ~ER
formulation of industry specific task forces for selection of
demonstration and development projects;
identification of cleaner technologies developed in research
laboratories/industrial units in India and abroad and facilitating
transfer and adaptation of such technologies in India;
establishing centres for cleaner technologies in various parts of
the country for developing a centralised data base and providing
information to industries*;
capacity building for environmental audit for pollution prevention*.
capacity building for developing indigenous design engineering
capability for absorption, adaptation and improvement of imported
technology*;
formulation of standards in terms of waste discharge per unit
quantity of raw material;
formulation of legal and economic measures to ensure absorption
of clean technologies; and
capacity building for assessment of environment impact of clean
technologies'.
Environmental Impact Assessment
9.07 Action would be taken to:
- establish of a National Centre for Long term Training in EIA-; and
evolve a network of Regional Centres in various Institutes for
training in the preparation of EIA reports, including Disaster
Management Plans*.
Strengthening Scientific Understanding of environmental Issues as
also structures fortraining at different levels, orientation and creating
environmental awareness, resources assessment,etc.
9.08 Priority programmes in the area are as follows
evolve structures to strengthen the training, research and education
activities through existing government and non-government
organisations and institutions at different levels, and strengthen
arid support them*;
assistance to NGOs to set up district and village training centres
and provide funds for them;
programme for training of trainers at all levels needs to be taken
up urgently. The Government can identify agencies and institutions
which could take up this work;
a scheme to allow practitioners, activitists, professionals, civil
servants and others to participate in regeneration activities;
training facilities for civil servants, especially those belonging to
the Central and All India Services, through the environmental
training activities of their induction institutions, which also require
significant strengthening;
environmental training programmes for students and the general
public, especially in townships located in or around areas of
special ecological significance;
regular and sustained environment education (EE) programmes
for professionals, decision-makers and local-self government
authorities in EIA;
environment-related subjects should be infused with larger social
concerns;
new environmental courses, interdisciplinary in nature and
accessible to student of all backgrounds, should be initiated;
development of a wide range of EE materials for mass distribution
including modules and workbooks for teachers, low-cost
environmental kits for students and audio-visual materials;
environmental education programmes for the newly constituted
Paryavaran Vahini (voluntary environmental task forces);
capacity building for collection and analysis of environmental
statistics for Natural Resource Accounting; and
renvironmental education of local policy makers, voluntary agencies,
technical departments of State Governments and local body
authorities in urban environmental issues.
Conservation of soll and moisture and ensuring that water sources
do not get polluted
9.09 The programmes which would be given priority in this area are as
follows:-
- programmes for rehabilitation and catchment area treatment for
major and medium irrigation works;
formulation of water management plan based on detailed soil
surveys and landuse capability for major and medium irrigation
works; .
organisation strengthening for encouraging user participation in
major and medium irrigation projects from the planning stage
onwards*;
- ER- -~~~15
developing networking with Governme,.t Departments with
Research Institutions and experts for research, design and
evaluation of irrigation projects;
developing data base for post evaluation studies for periodic
monitoring of actual crop patterns, water use pattern and productivity
in all irrigation commands;
review of command area development programmes in each State
for streamlining the programme for better returns 1rom irrigated
agriculture and for optimum use of water;
rehabilitation o. system and non-system irrigation tanks;
framing of legislative measures, fiscal measures and credit delivery
schemes for ensuring proper exploitation of ground water;
promotion of programmes and projects for conjunctive use of
surface and ground water resources;
rehabilitation and utilisation of public tubewells;
organisation strengthening for better O&M systems for irrigation
works*;
projects for small surface water storage structures in rainfall short
areas;
dissemination and extension of low-cost rainfed, agronomic and
soil conservation technologies to small and marginal farmers in
rainfed cultivation zones;
a mission mode project on development, demonstration and
promotion of bio-fertilizers, which is under the consideration of the
Ministry of Agriculture:
survey for information generation on water-logging, saline solis,
flood hazards, etc.;
capacity building for formulation of Flood Control Master Plans for
major river basins and for undertaking post-facto evaluation of
flood control works';
capacity building through organisational strengthening of State
Land Use Boards for the tasks of soil and water conservation;
capacity building for developing natural resource/agricultural
statistics in respect of dry-land agriculture. irrigation and
hydrological data for better crop planning, optimum application of
water and flood mapping, and Environment Impact Assessesment
for river valley and agricultural development projects*;
schemes to involve women for implementation of national
programmes in agriculture including watershed devolopment and
soil conservation schemes; and
formulation of a regicn-wise water pricing policy.
* Organisation strengthening projects.
FIGURES AND TABLES
Fig. 1 Status of Air Pollution Control in Environmentally
Sensitive Industries.
Defauler
Partial ETP
I] EquipmentunderPlanningDesign(Constuction
I EquipmentinOparation-MeetingtheStandards
Uniks cbsed
us 108
,w 94
80 2 68
o 68 i6]
i.602
40 6 4
Z 20. 12
z
Cement Thermat Fertilizer Oil Refinery
Powser
Plant
Type of Industries
Source: Central Pollution Control Board - 1990-91
-- ~EJ
Fig. 2: Status of Water Pollution Control in Environmentally Sensitive
Industries
Defaulter
I] Partial ETP
0 1 ETPunderConstnjctlnlDesign
* Equipment in Operation-Meetingthe Standards
363 f90 * Unks closed
07 | 7<Includes units having infli-cient processes
0 0 4 units partially complying DOD of 1OO mg/i
* * 5 units partially complying Zn of 5 mgll
178
.S 15D S 3�S
5:~. 12 108
I0o
.0 23) I____ ,_______
E, 71 12 L
.1
a~~~~~~~~~~~~~
Type of Industry
Source: Central Pollution Control Board -1990-91.
INoDUSTrIvES COIvmPL YiNG WrrH THr ST^NDaRDS
SUGAR
CD
0
C
9 PHARMACEUTICAL .: -3
CE:AEJVT :1(
l ABOVF 200 TP -=
FERTILIZER
PESTICIDE -0-4.
DiSTILL,ERY i 0
PULP & PAPER I J--
(ABOVE 30 TPD) o
0
R THERMAL POWER *---.*
PLANVTS R0
....DYES A I.T. ,
PETROCHEMICAL
Z C~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~D
(a
0
t rTANNVERIES C'
CAUSTIC SODA -
I 0IL REFINERY
ha ZINC SMELTrER
S~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
AL. SMWELTER
IRON/ & SrEEL
COPPER SMfELTER
. .
Table 1: State of Ambient Air Quality In 15 Major Citles of India in 1989
Information on National Amblonk Air Qualily Monitoring Stations
(All values are based on. '--hourly averages only)
All values In Micrograms per cubicmetre
SulphurDioxide Nitrogen Dioxide S.P.M.
Avg. Min. Max. Avg. Mi MaL Avg. Min. Max.
City: AGRA
* ULcation Tal Mhkal 19.7 3.3 64.0 10.3 3.2 21.0 438 170 2016
* Location: Jaipur House 10.2 3.0 30.6 5.8 3.0 18.0 355 145 725
* Locton Agra Unimeray 10.4 3.0 30.5 5.2 3.0 13.3 360 135 662
Locabon: E.S.I Hospital 9.9 3.0 26.7 5.1 3.0 11.0 330 83 614
- Ct: ANAPARA
Locaton Anapara Caony 45.3 5.7 161.4 34.1 6.1 60 1 236 81 607
* Locabon Renumagar Colony 50.7 9.8 95.1 36.5 7.9 634 345 101 1331
-City: BARODA
* Locatson: Nyaya Mandi 17.8 4.5 142.5 164 1.9 145.8 424 50 1780
* Locon apod 14.9 2.3 109.6 11.6 1.9 59.6 350 46 1363
Locaon Makarpwa 22.3 3.5 207.2 15.0 3.3 82.4 300 31 902
LocaIon Gujwat Pollubon
Control Board Offce 16.9 1.3 138.1 11.6 1.6 901 299 26 74
City: COCHIN
' Locan: Kalamssery 3.2 0.5 39.8 17.0 1.4 131.1 105 27 433
- Locaon: Trinpuniura 3.8 0.5 16.7 17.9 1.2 137.3 110 31 360
' tocation Kadavanthra 5.5 0.2 27.8 27.8 4.5 136.3 136 62 291
*Locaton Eroor 105 0.5 575 25.9 1 5 1106 125 30 317
Locaton . Irrupannam 36 05 28 1 19.5 0.5 225.D 112 31 305
=' Cit4 HALDIA
Loca tonr: WBIDC 4 7 0.0 46.4 17.5 0.5 64.9 151 50 280
' Locaton Super Make 12.4 0.5 105.6 23.2 0.5 110.2 406 80 1091
City: HOWRAH
Locaton: Municipal
Corporation 97.5 4.7 229.8 108.2 33.1 362.7 552 41 1093
- Location Bandhaghat 29.4 4.1 147.2 95.3 23.0 310.7 275 71 628
* Location : Naskarpara
Pump House 74.9 3.5 350.5 91.8 12.0 185.1 349 130 619
* Locaton: Saow Pow House 22.9 2.2 97.0 73.1 17.3 259.5 256 80 615
City: JHARIA a DHANBAD
' Location : R.O. Ohanbad 22.6 9.6 37.8 24.4 5.6 41.3 268 53 694
164
All value In Micrograms percoublcmatre
SulphurDioxide Nitrogen Dioxide S.P.M.
Avg. Min. Max. Avg. Min. Max. Avg. Min. Nbx.
* Locon R.S.P. Calleg
Jharia 27.2 12.2 53.7 31.1 16.7 50.8 387 262 510
Cily: KOTA
* Laion Aklgrh JR.O.) 26.9 3.6 65.5 75.2 24.8 358.1 269 128 596
* Locatbn A unmpa 27.6 4.5 71.2 3.1 21.3 292.3 208 80 471
* Lwcson Bordar 15.3 4.6 48.1 60.8 20.3 165.6 137 50 309
* Location Ralpa 26.5 3.3 114.3 116.8 18.3 460.3 262 75 607
Locallon Vatanwy HospItl 24.1 3.6 64.0 91.7 32.8 265.9 227 106 580
City : MADRAS
* Locamon K: b_aksm 26.3 0.5 160.6 22.2 2.0 81.1 180 55 384
* City MYSORE
* Location: hutit of
Educaton. Sarawahpuram 11.9 1.4 29.2 5.9 0.0 23.5 66 8 193
* Locabn: K.R. Ciri
Vsweraiy Bl. 13.6 2.0 43.2 8.8 0.0 45.8 136 19 532
* Locason : KAID Buliding
M"egull 11.2 1.9 45.9 17.8 1.3 101.7 66 10 238
City: SHIMLA
* Location: Ts Bench. Ridge 3.7 0.4 28.4 15.4 1.2 48.1 180 11 563
Lacon: Bus Staid 3.1 0.5 16.3 18.6 2.9 44.5 348 45 934
- city: SINDRI
* Locaion: FCI Main Hospital 29.4 12.8 51.1 30A 15.0 68.3 287 56 1052
City: SURAT
Loceon SVR Engg. Colege 11 5 4.3 62.2 41.9 9.3 166.65 120 6 406
Lacaton BRC Udhana 28 4 4.0 88.2 39.9 8.7 148.5 161 43 526
Locaton: A.I.R. Buliding 189 4d0 100.7 33.4 8.8 89.0 378 68 792
C 5i: VASCO
Locatn: Vaso 4.4 1.0 10.3 12.8 4.0 29.5 144 12 406
City: FARIDABAD
Locaton A.C. LoWhi No.63
Secr 9 31.3 16.7 39.5 12.6 6.8 20.0 275 139 425
* Locaton Esmcn Medcal
Centre 30.8 17.2 39.3 12.4 4.7 26.8 281 157 415
Source Central Pollution Control Board- 1990-91
1 R
Table 2: Statewlso Position of Water Supply Watewater Generation, Colloction and
Treatment In Class 11 Towns
Total Per Wastewater Wamle wbart treatment
Water Capito (ULD) apacily (MLDI
Si. StalstUnion Total No. Population Supply Walew
No. Teritory cl towns 1961 IMLDO Supply Gene- Colbe- Prlmay Primary
Census (LPT) rated led only and Secondary
I Andhra Pradesh 26 1713475 111.03 49 88.46 1.00 0.00 0.00
2. Elhar 10 648643 43.11 49 34.46 0.00 0.00 0.00
3. Gujarat 23 1542683 151.56 79 121.23 8.65 4.50 20.25
4- Goa 2 122760 13.00 82 10.60 o.00 0.00 0.W
5. Hirrachal Pradesh 1 70604 23.61 282 18.88 0.00 0.00
6. Haryana c 395243 39.74 77 31.78 9.37 0.00 0.00
7. Karnataka , 808375 64.37 62 51.49 0.00 0.00 0.00
8 Keral 7 456275 88.74 182 70.98 0.00 0.00 0.00
9. Maharashtra 22 1491042 191.82 101 153.46 10.00 - 1.40
10 Madhya Pradesh 23 1553516 162.84 82 130.27 5.82 0.00 000
II. Mizoram 1 74493 2.17 16 1.74 0.00 0.00 0.00
12. Orissa 5 320383 35.09 73 28.07 0.00 0.00 0.00
13 Punjab 10 665319 112.49 129 90.01 16.33 0.00 0.00
14. Rajasthan 10 660790 44.80 51 35.87 0.00 0.00 0.00
i3. Tamr Nadu 39 2611397 200.91 64 160.74 3.20 . 0.00
16. Utnr Pradesh 27 1891631 239.73 99 191.75 6.60 0.00 0.00
17. West Bengal 17 13067B0 97.14 64 77.73 0.00 0.00 0.00
Total 241 16333409 1622.15 (78) 1207.52 -61.97 4.50 21.65
Fgures in parentsis shall not be read as tata.
Source: Central Polbution Control Board - 1990-91
Table 3 Ust of Polluted River Stretches
SI. River Polluted stretdi Desired Existing Crtical Posse Sources of Pokotn
No. Class Class Parameters
1. Sabarmatl (i) Immrdiate upstreamn of B E DO. BOO, C;oboims Dorwesic and IridtsWal was
Ahmedabad dty upto born Ahnedabad
Sabarmal Ashram
(I) Satimat Ashram lo Vauha D E * do- -do-
2. Subernarekha Hada Dam to Baharagora C Partly D mid DO, Colforms. BOO Damnsk anid ridustial se
Party E orom Randci md Jrwmshdpur
3. Godawarl (1) DWS of Nasik to Nanded C Party D aid BOD Wasb trom Sugs. Otisy ary
Pariy Ef Food proctiVig Industries
(ii) Cily rimil of Naik and B -do- -do- -do-
Nanided
4. KrIshna Karad to Sangi C Partly 0 mid BOO Washe trom Sugs amd DWy
Party E Industries
5. Indus (Tributaites, DIS ol Lidhiana to Harike C Partly D md DO, BOD lndLsri wash btm Hos,bs.
Sull.)) Party E Twinnes. Etecarplabg mrd
Engg hWoidstha md dloamas
atle from Ludihia ard
julunwdur.
DOr of Nangal b Anandput C E Ammorna Warn of Fr,. Cir AMi
md p40w rni bam Nanp
6. Ganga (Tributaries)
(i) Yamuna (I) Delhi to Confluence with C Party D md DO. DOD. Domestic and ndustl war
Chambul Partly E Cdliorms trom DM. Malhua ad Ag.
(Nl In he dty llms ol Ddhi B -do- -do- -do-
Mathura & Agra
Hindon Saharanpur to Confluence with D E 00. BOD, Toxic incutrbl and dmansk wash
Yamuna from Siharanpur a-id Ghazabad
Chambal D/S ol Nagda and D/S of Kota C Partly D and BOD. DO Doaestic and hdnuW wshi
(app. 15 Mui at both the places) Party E Irmm Nagda and Koo
respectively
(ii) Damodar DiS of Dhanbad of Haldia C Partly D and SOD, Toxic Indusiad wash Iram Dhad.
Party E Drgapur. Assansol. aUa a-d
Burnipur.
(iii) Gomd Luducow b Confuenn with C Parly 0 aid D0, BOD, Bndusri wash tram Osgse
Ganga Pardy E Colitorms mid dameask wrns rmm
Lucknow
(iv) Kali 0/B Modiagar o Confluence C Party 0 ad OD. Cablrms bndstrial amd dask wae
wilh Ganga Partly E bom MoIdnagar
Source: Central Poldtion ConSoard - -1'9t
Tabl, 4 UsI of NAAOM Locadons In Desanding Order of ConcentratIons (ugleub.m) based on 1990 Data o 16 or more
Hours Monitored Days
Area Class-industrlal Area ClassaCommmerdal Area ClassaResidenfal
S No. Sulphur Nitrogen SPM Sulphur Nitrogen SPM Sulphur Nitgn SPM
Dioxide Dioxide DiOxide Dioxide Dioxide Dioxide
1. Naskarpara Pump Naskarpara Pump Raipur Road, Eye Hospital. Town Hal. Hamida Road, Jugshati. Vetumary Det Ka
House. How,ah Howte. Howrah Dehradun Jamshedpur Delhi Bhopal Jamshedpur Hospita. Kota Para*, Vatpw
(91.8) . (90.8) (837) (55.9) (51.5) (594) (78.2) (101.2) (566)
2. Munidpal Corp., kndpal Corp. uniclpal Corp. LalBazar Bank-More, Town Hal. Indra Cho. Raipua. Jaipur Howe,
Howrah Howrah Howrah Calcutta Bihar Delhi Gajroula Kohl Agra
(70.0) (75.7) (560) (38.5) (44.4) (568) (4B.4) (17 2) (502)
3. Parel. Bandhaghat, Nalafgarh, Bank-More, LalBazar, Clock-Tower, Visak Hostel, Aelgarh ESI HasIW
Bombay Howrah DelhI Bihar Calcutta Dehradun Bihar Kota Agra
(56.7) (58.3) (527) (31.6) (42.0) (506) (37.7) (65.3) (445)
4. Raunra Ltd., Super Market, Rita Sews g Town Halt, Vehictiar, Tripola Saw, Clvi Lnes. Anantpura, Air tCi Sig.,
Gairoula Halda Mach.. LudtNlana Delhi Tiaft. Puns Jaipur Satna Kota Surat
(56.2) (58.2) (516) (30,6) (42.2) (502) (33.0) (70.4) (416)
5. Oolauri, Bator. Agra Univ., Kalbadevi, Hamfda Road, Kotil. CalBa NMaro. Barnlhera. Ne" Nagpr.
Jamsh;dpur Howrah Agra Bombay Bhopal Kanpur Ahmedabad Kata P.O., De11
(52.7) (52.8) (478) (27.2) (31.7) (382) (33.4) (a.1) (383)
6. Manali P.S.. Raunao Ltd.. Indus. Area. Clock Trwr, Kalbadev. Kottun Kt. (Sec.-9, "ncra Chowk. CaRe Ni.
Madras Gairaula Satna Dehradun Bombay Indore Faldabad Gajroula Ahmedabad
(54.1) (50.4) (449) (26.0) (30.7) (358) (30.7) (534) (357)
7. Adityapur RO., Mki Plant Shahzada Sagh, Hamida Road MRD Bank. Kotil. RO.. Dhanbad. SVR Enr".. Nyaya Lrbir.
Jamshedpur Ludiana Delhi Bhopd G.Palh, Nagpur Kanpur C0he. Suat Baroda
(46.1) (46.4) (447) (24.7) (28.9) (328) (29.5) (40.9) (357)
8. Industrial Area, Alaidi Road, Hero Cyde, G.T., RCH School, Eye Hospital, Bank-More, Bandra, RIO. Dhanbad. PHED GCvt
Satna Puns Road, Ludhana Ahmedabad Jamshedpur Biha Bombay Nagar Jaipt,
(43.7) (46.3) (428) (20.3) (28.2) (291) (28.2) (39.8) (357)
9. Dhudhora Vil, Rita Sewing, RSP College, Asnd Rao, Ci., Clock Towr, Lai Baz, Air lnW, Air WA Sapod.
ShOal Mach.. Ludhaia Jhatla Bngalore Dehredun Calcutta Bldg., Surat BM. Surat Baroda
(41.5) (43.6) (415) (17.9) (23.2) (274) (21.1) (37.7) (339)
10. Anpara Colony, Shardaben Hosp., Raunao Ltd., Vhkular Trat., Parry's Corpn., Veilosr Tr., CESE IG., Caam Nsol, Visak Hos
Anpara Ahmedabad Gairaula TraMc, Puns Madras Pune Calcutta Ahmedad Bh]l
(36.4) (42.8) (378) (13.6) (20.6) (273) (19.5) (36.6) (329)
Note SPM Suspended Panolm Matter
Scurme Centrul Potlutuon Control Board - Annuit Report - 1i99192
Table S Am',Ient Air Ouulity Status In 32 Residential Areas of Monltored Citae duHing 1990
Sulphur di oxide Nitrogen di-oxide Suspended
Parxb jatawtr
Code Location Min Mean Max n Min. Mean Max. n Mh Mean Max n
STATE Andhra Pradesh
CITYITOWN Hyderabad
150 Tarnaka 30 58 280 78 30 12.5 52.0 78 52 163 407 52
STATE Bihar
CITYIrOWN Ohanbad
44 RO. Dianbad 79 295 62 1 92 109 39,8 73.4 94 9a 301 699 95
Jamshedpur
173 Jugshall
(Gurudwara) 65 5 78 2 122.7 7 14 5 28.8 36 2 7 29 104 129 8
UNION TERRITORY Chandigarh
107 Environmlent
Society 09 2.6 150 112 27 11.0 55.2 112 S0 174 663 121
UNION TERRITORY Delhi
59 Janakpuri 30 65 14 2 90 58 258 44.5 90 119 317 831 96
60SlriFort 30 87 192 80 30 21 1 34.2 80 26 317 723 84
144 Netali Nagar,
Post Olffe 2.0 15.3 62 3 60 4 0 33 2 81.B 60 91 383 1480 60
UNION TERRITORY
DamanDiu & Dadra Nagar Haveli
11S PWO OfIe,
Sil Vassa 1.2 4.2 22 5 154 1.2 4.5 11.8 154 Is 102 2S3 154
166 PWD Office,
Daman I 0 3.8 21.2 151 1.2 3 7 f 1.5 151 I 9B 273 152
STATE OulaiaI
CITYIIOWN Ahmedabad
102CadilIaNa,d 42 334 20.5 152 10.7 366 1958 152 1 357 1069 154
103 LD. Engg
Conege 2 0 6 3 25 8 132 6.7 33 4 163 8 132 35 204 542 134
CITYITOWN Baroda
50 Gujarat Polutn
Control Board 25 71 40.9 148 3.0 7.3 196 148 45 241 711 152
48 Bapod 4 3 7.8 32.0 137 2.8 138 87 7 137 57 339 871 140
47 Nyaymadir 43 8.1 165.4 2o6 4.2 134 65.4 286 90 357 911 291
Sulphur di-oxide Nitrogen di-oxide Suspended
Pa,uoaIa MaerI
Code Loaffon Min Mean Max. n Mmn. Mean Max. n WMi Mean Max n|
CITYITOWN Surat
23 AJr India Bldg. 5.8 21.1 71.8 144 11.7 37.7 69.7 143 65 416 n76 145
21 SVR Engg. Colee 5.9 1S.5 65.5 143 7.5 40.9 119.2 143 8 119 651 145
STATE HrmadWl Ptadesh|
CITYITOWN Parwanoo
132 Reginal Offe 0.9 2.9 13.9 100 1.8 14.5 48.3 135 35 149 781 141
STATE Haryana
CITY/TOWN Banglabore
42 Kot'i No. 63,
sec. * 9 19.7 30.7 44.0 166 6.0 10.0 18.3 166 214 315 452 156
STATE Karnataka
CITYITOWN Bangalore
81 Jayanagar Police
StaVon 1.7 16.4 48.1 47 5.0 11.3 20.1 46 19 49 136 48
crCIrrTOWN Mysore
-.1 39 Insru at ol
Educadon 7.8 17.8 26.3 10 3.3 10.5 38.6 10 23 70 142 11
STATE Kerala
CITYITOWN Cochin
148 PHED 6.0 6.7 21.5 115 3.0 4.4 19.2 115 11 76 204 57
STATE Mahafashla
CITY/TOWN Bombay
168 Bandra 6.0 28.2 87.5 73 7.3 24.5 65.2 72 64 m 474 69
CITY/TOWN Nagpur
94 Regonal Office,
MCD Coard 2.2 8.9 33.7 49 7.2 30.2 71.8 49 55 241 499 43
167 NEERI 6.0 8.4 37.0 117 3.0 12.0 31.0 119 29 130 267 101
CITYITOWN Pune
138 University 4.0 106 42.5 78 S8 24.7 70.2 76 30 159 316 81
STATE Madhya Pradesh
CITYITOWN Shilal
67.5/32 Banglow
Ofcke Building *.1.0 1.0 * 1.0 0 9.7 21.7 33.0 55 94 261 518 55
65 Visak Hostel
Secltor 4 13.0 37.7 573 54 117 24.0 41.8 54 104 329 707 54
CITY/TOWN Bhopal
I I
I~~~~
Sulphur di oxide Nivogen di-oxide Susperdec
ParbcuIate kPe
Code Locaton Mm Mean Max. n Min. Mean Max. n n Mean Max n
125 Environmental
Complex 0.0 6.4 12.0 12 4.9 18.0 42.9 11 52 132 288 14
124 South
T.T. Nagar 05 17.6 34.1 7 4.5 30.6 49.5 8 77 198 454 13
CITY/TOWN Indore
131 Telophone
Nagar 6 8 9.0 12.9 26 9. 1 13.0 30 6 26 95 329 926 26
CITYrTOWN Nagda
83 Grasim Labour Club 2.7 94 51.7 III 35 178 73.4 1Il 80 218 423 III
84 BCI Labour Club 2 2 7.2 20.6 foe 3 4 16 0 62.4 108 78 282 713 109
CITY/TOWN Satna
129 Clvi Unes 26 2 33.0 38.7 14 11.4 12.7 13.4 14 114 258 455 24
STATE Orissa
CITY/TOWN Angul
70 Angul Township
NALCO 10 81 75.5 99 24 49 7.6 19 11 12b 581 149
STATE Punjab
- CITY/TOWN Ludhiana
62 Near Clodc Tower 0.0 13.0 53 2 51 2.8 39.9 78.5 73 78 258 859 114
UNION TERRITORY Pondicherry
CITY/TOWN Pondicherry
64 Sectonal Office
Upstairs 0.0 4.8 25.2 129 2 1 14.9 43.7 129 47 107 194 129
STATE Rajasthan
CITY/TOWN Jdapur
157 PHED.
Gandhi Nagar 5.0 5.0 5.3 96 5.0 12.3 44.3 96 102 357 1329 53
CITY/TOWN Kota
16 AkeIgarth
(Regional Office) 3.6 14.3 35.8 88 39.6 85.3 281.9 88 22 _30 649 93
20 Veterinary HOspital 3.6 15.7 40.2 81 40.1 101.2 232.8 81 102 228 535 83
STATE Tamil Nadu
CITY Madras
74 Puwaswakkam 0.5 104 94.9 122 3.9 29.5 118.9 122 38 136 306 126
160 Sanhonie 6.0 8.7 27.3 108 3.0 11.7 48.0 108 27 78 172 III
CITY/TOWN Tuilcorin
75 Tudoorin 4.7 19.2 47.0 133 2.6 8.6 20.4 133 10 44 1116 lJ4
Sulphur dioxide Nitrogen di-oxide Suspended
ParWlaiO Maerm
Code LntUon Mn Mean Max. n Min Mean Max n Mn Mean Max n
STATE Unar Pradesh
CITY/TOWN Agra
2 Jaipu Home 5.8 19.8 43.8 55 4.2 11 1 20.8 55 230 502 942 57
4 E.S.I. Hospita 11.8 19.1 25.5 9 8.8 10.6 15.0 9 120 445 631 10
CIlTY/TOWN Gairoula
139 hcdra Choaw 18.0 48.8 128.8 46 7.5 534 1376 46 162 237 422 46
CITY/TOWN Kanpur
I5 JK Apanant 2.8 7.3 14.8 56 4.8 99 19.9 56 44 204 744 CO
98 Dopu" Ka Parao 6.1 9.8 13.9 63 6.7 13.3 19 3 63 78 566 4541 63
141 Agrkilcre LUvw&sy 3.0 4.3 198 95 3.0 9.0 42.2 95 46 253 892 95
STATE West Bengal
CITY/TOWN Calcuta
164 CESE, Mandovlls
Garden (Gariahat) 6.0 19.5 81.3 40 3.0 13.0 41 2 40 39 136 601 40
(N.A.-Data not ava lnldlquale, unils In ugtoub.m)
nrNmber of .-16 hours rnondod days
SoUtNS: Cenbal FoaDuln Control Saad- Annual Report 1991.92
a S
S I
TibIe 6: Land Use ClusifIcalion In Indio
IMILLION HECTARES)
HEADING 1950 51 1960-61 1970-71 1980g81 1985-86 1956 87 1987-S8 1988-89 1989 90 % OF TOTAL
(P) (P) (P) (P) (P) REPORTING
AREA (8a90)
1. GEOGRAPHICAL AREA 328.73
11. REPORTING AREA FOR
LAND UTILISATION
STATISTICS (1 TO 5) 284.32 298.46 303.76 304.15 304.66 305.02 304.84 30482 30487 1000
1. FORESTS 40.48 54.05 63.91 67.04 67.04 6675 67.00 67.08 67.76 222
2. NOT AVAILABLE FOR
CULTIVATION (A#B) 47.52 50.75 44.64 39.62 40.71 41 11 41 29 '1.25 4104 135
(A) AREA UNDER NON.
AGRICULTURAL USES 9.36 14 84 16.48 19.66 20.54 20.84 20.99 24.26 21.24 7.0
(B) BARREN AND UN.
CULTURABLE LAND 38.16 35.91 2816 19.96 20.17 2027 20.30 19.99 19S0 6.5
3. OTHER UNCULTIVATED
LAND EXCLUDING FALLOW
LAND (AtOiC) 49.45 3764 35.06 32.31 31.11 31.02 30.96 30.48 30.21 9.9
(A) PERMANANT
PASTURES AND
OTHER GRAZiNG
LANDS 6.68 13.97 13.26 11.97 11.97 11.88 11.83 11 80 11.60 38
(B) LAND UNDER
MISCELLANEOUS
TREE CROPS AND
GROVES NOT INCLUDED
IN NET AREA SOWN 1963 4.46 4.30 3.60 3.45 364 3.52 3-47 3.57 1.2
(C) CULTURABLE WASTE 2294 19.21 17.50 16.74 15.69 15.50 15.61 15.21 1504 409
4. FALLOW LANDS (AtB) 28.12 22.B2 19.88 24.75 24.88 26.12 29.36 26.44 26.34 86
(A) FALLOW LAND OTHER
THAN CURRENT
FALLOWS 17.44 11.18 6.76 9.92 10.02 10.57 11.03 10.44 10.62 3.5
(B) CURRENT FALLOWS 10.68 11.64 11.12 14.83 14.86 1555 18.33 16.00 15.72 S.l
5. NET AREA SOWN (6-7) 118.75 133.20 140.27 140.00 140.92 140.02 136.23 139.57 139.52 458
6. TOTAL CROPPED AREA
(GROSS CROPPED AREA) 131.89 152.77 165.79 172.63 178.83 17666 171.81 181.08 181.14
7. AREA SOWN MORE
THAN ONCE 13.14 19.57 25.52 32.63 37.91 36.64 35.58 41.51 41.62
8. CROPPING INTENSITY 111.10 114.70 118.20 123.30 126.90 126.17 126.12 129.74 129.83
111. NET IRRIGATED AREA 20.65 24.66 31.10 38.72 42.08 42.49 43.05 44.S5 45.14
IV. GROSS IRRIGATED AREA 22.56 27.98 38.19 49.78 54.65 55.69 56.23 59.05 59.64
PROVISIONAL
CROPPING INTENSITY IS OBTAINED BY DIVIDING THE GROSS CROPPED AREA BY THE NET AREA SOWN
sourco: Ag9rfadual StaksUt at . Glancl, MnrsLvy of AgrduW, Gowmwo of India.
Table 7: Physical Achievement at the End of th Seventh Plan (165.90)
and Two Annual Plans (1990-92)
Popuation In M1lkm
Sl.No.Sub-Seclor Populatlon covered Population coverard Anticipated Population
as on 31.3,1065 mm on 31.3.1990 coverage as on 31.3.1S92
Population % 5 Population %* Populatilon % S
ItRural Water Supply 3.3.36 56.26 44465 73.87 486.11 78.40
2 Rural Sanitation 4.03 0.72 14.79 2.4S 16.06 2.73
3 Urban Waler Supply 127.20 72.90 182.00 83.80 165.67 64.90
4 Urban Saniltaon 49.60 28.40 99.70 45.93 104.76 4790
r Percentage is wiih respect to tola RuraLArban population on 6h date.
Sourc e Eight Five Yea Plan, 1992-07, Val nI, Planning Commision, Government of lndra
Tabl 8 Ongoing Exterally Aided Proects in Env/fonmenl and Foresta
Pollution Control
SliNo. Donor Agency Prolect A Place of Implementatlon Ouratlon asslatance from Expendi.re tM
Donor Agency Aug. 19M
1. Sweden ErwnronmenW Proecilon & Training Reseach Instituw, J y 92 b 15 wil SEK 7.0 mm. SOK
Hyderabad January 96
2 Norway Training Pfogramme on modeling 4 suwveihlane of May 92 to 10.5 Lakhs NOK 6.6 Lath NOK
dispersion & mwement of pollutants December 93
3 Norway Orilssa Environmental April 92 to April 96 40 Mil NOK 7.3 MI NOK
Programme
4 DOnmark Environmental Master Pian Study, Karnataka January 93 D R. 12 Crxes; Rs.3.46 Croeas
January 96
5 The Netherlands Sib-onitoring ol Rlv r Vamuna. Challyar & Tungabhadra March 93 to 2.6 laihs DFL 2.4 Lakeh DFL
Rlvers March 94
Environment Impact Assesrvent
Sl.No. Name and Duralcn of the Ptolet Donor Agency Outiay/Expenditure Progress of Relm bursement
Relmbursement of Expenditure
1. Indo-US programme on Coroptual Unhed Slatbs Departmrent ol the Rs. 15,00,0001. in Rs 1,20,0001-
Environmental Management Plan for Interiotr Omc of Surface Mning US held Rupee fund (for the workhop only)
Coal Mines in Incia
(Initiated In June 89 for a Ihree yeat term
with a provision for extension of two vyrs)
Globcl Environmental Problems
SI.No. Project Title Project Period Proeecl Cosl AId Agency
I India Country S!udy on Climate change 12 mont USS 99628/ Aslan Devpent Bark
wef. Sept. 1992
Research end Training In Porsaty
8iNo. Name & Ouratlon Donor Agency Outlay/Emp. Relmb. Progra.s of Felm, of Exp. Remarks
Stonglhening A developing Indian UNDP 2.56 miiin US S Projd become operanal w.e. 4.9.92 & no Project beinrg hnpiernted
Council for Forestry Research & dalm has been prelefted by ICFRE so fa. writ Grant.
Education (ICFRE) with duration 1992.97
Table 9 Progress under the Ongoing Externally Aided At"orestatlon Projects
SINo. Name of the Project Aid Project Project Project upto 3/93 Aid Ald Aid
Agency Perlod Cost In Currency Component utillsed
Rs. Crafrs Expenditure Physical (In Million) (in MiItton)
Targets Achl. Foreign Forelgn
Exchange Exchange Exchange
(Rs In Cr.) (in '000 ha) (Col. 9-10)
1. Forestry Development World Bank 1992.91 to 114.70 6.94 44 29 US S 3400 558
Project, West Bengal 1996.97
2. Forestry Sector World Bank 1992.93 to 431.51 4.17 12 8 USS 12400 699
Project, Maharashtra 1997-9U
3. Sodal Foresiry SIDA' 1988.89 to 95.40 91.59 84 a6 SEK 31300 19760
Project Tamil Nadu 1992.93
4. Socal Forestry SIDA 1968.69 to 78.34 94.67 125 127 SEK 263.00 169.00
Project, Otisea 1992-93
5 Oungarptw Integated SIDA' 1992.93 to 28.14 0.52 SEK 80.00 4.20
Wastelands Development 1996.97
Project, Ralastihan
6. Aravag Hil EC' 1990.91 to 48.15 22.07 11 11 ECU 23.20 2.32
Atlorestation. Haryana 1997.98
7. Aftortalon Alng OECF"' Japan 1990.91 to 107.50 20.08 11 15 YEN 7869.00 47280
IGCP"" Ralasthan 1994.91
S. Atrestation of OECF''' Japan 1992-93 to 166.90 4.14 20 4 YEN 6095.00 278.50
Aravalli Hls, Ralasthan 1996-97
9. We sbrn Ghats ODA"" (U.K.) 1992.93 to 84.20 0.61 U.K Pound 23.19 0.00
Forestry and Envikonment 1996-97
Projed, Karnataka
SIDA Swedish Internatonal Development Agency
EC Euopean Communty
OECF - Oveseas Economic Cooperation Fund
ODA Overseas Development Agency
"'IGCP Indira Gandhl Cana Proiec
Rupees In Crores.
Table 10 EmExnmally AasbWd olng Projects under Gangs Action Plan
(as on September. 19M)
1N.o. RNme of Project Landing Agency Total Value Intamatlonal Loan Onrnt Pttysl Proguss Financlea
(Prmnt ) Component Duration % Progress %
I. InNgrated sawtadton prod Jainau, KIpur The Netertands 21.9 21.59 Grant Apr. 87 o Dec. 93 93% 76%
(11 *serofes)
2. lngWaled Sanitton Proect Mr2apur, The Nothelrands 1S.75 133.9 Grant Apr. 67 to Doc. 93 70% 72%
Utar Pradesh (U.P.) (9 schaemes
3. Pdoktn conrtol wors, U.P. (3 shaemas of World Sk 35.63 30.53 Loan Dec. 87 o Mar. 96 46% 70%
ewage ea*wnt Iant at Hwalwa6, KanprL
r A. wbad
LJ PdUoltIon Conol wo in West tal World Bar* 34.55 12.27 Loan Dec.67 to Mr. 96 75% 79%
(13 sdem of pumping stalfo)
5. Pa*Ptbn abatment works for Wver Hamuna OECF, Japan 357.00 401.00 Loan Apr. 93 to lA 99 75% 0.6%
(15 tlowns6 In Haryana 8 In U.P. besides Deihl) (YEN 17.77 bklion)
6. TechnIcal Assistane kr Ganga Aaion Plan ODA, U.K. 1967 t 1992
Table 11: Programmes of the Ministry of Environment & Forests
AREASOFEMPHASIS ORGANIARONAL N1N4rOGAMSA7lONAL
SURVEY OF NATURAL RESOURCES - EIS for ZS[ - Florffaunal urves by lSViZSI
- EAaonEcoogy&widlif;
- Foraet sufe byFS[
ODNSERVATON OF NATURAL - Cerni Zoo Auabuiy - DesignationorWctandsunder
RESOURCES - Assistuaceforrigcr Rcesvs RusasrCoavantion
Moiringfcvalduao - MAP for Wetuads/CorWc rcfs
- Naurcintreprationcutrrc Mnpive
for education an wildlifc - Assistance to Bonical Gwrdens
- NFAP for Fomstry
- Fort fare cont
- ad areda nAwork
- Projeirtger
- Assisance toZoological Plks
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT - TraininginEIA - Faviazvnacu akwancs
ASSESSMENT - Rcgulatoy noifacaions for
fragil s
- Curying capcity Sudies
- Montring of EIA wodits
MONITORINGCPREVENTION AND - Su=gtheningEPTRIPCRI - Monitng Air/rwrqualisy
ODNTROL OF POLLUTION - StzuagdweingCPCB/SPCBs - VdacaRrpollutiom inaxol
- Assistance to MOEF for - Envhunmcanlasandmds
eviuauingeng uncntal - Acian pbm fr polltuing
prebleaus of pouzion indusmes
- World Bank assisted industril
polution cantol pojact
- ECOo-abdh
- CantechnolowgyforSSI
- Bio-moiornofriverYinun
- Monitorigwaterqualiy of G
MANAGEMENT OF -AZARDOUS - AssistanccforResarch Projects - Asistancc to States for EIA
SUBSTANCES forhamdlinglwearncrt of HSM stAies in rspect of HSM sites
- Trainingforhouscholddisposal
ofwastcslsanitaaio of urban
slundwelas
- Assistance to SPCBs
formanaging HSM
GANGA ACTION PLAN - Public wa _s 1c - lnfrfrforscwgaut
ucatuut in towns
- Manitingofndusiesalog
Gangauiver
- Poluid nnentinYannaaue
Gouti
- NRAP
AFFORESTATION AND - Suppon to regional cntrs - Conscrvation of rAn-wod fort
ECO-DEVELOPMENT forprojetevaluation poduce
- Assistance to ceo-utsk forcc - Developmcnt of forestpastur
saeds
-Aaaseafin
AREASOFEMPHASIS ORGANIIZAflNAL NONORGANSAT1ONAL
- Integrated waueland develmnt
- World Bank asisted NSFP
- Afforesaton schemes in
Rajasth.nj/Haryanawithispanese/
ECusisatnce
Fuel woodffaddr development
projects
* Sceddevelopmant
- Assistance for NCO projec for
tEfaoestion
- Mapping of wasiclads nd GIS
- Wcsten Ghats fOVtry projects
with U.K. asistance
- National fund for afrestation
RESEARCH ON NATURAL - Support to ICFRE institimns, - Support for resarch projects
RESOURCES ERTCIIFM/WLVSACOANI underMAD/Esterna&Western
IGNFAISFSC Ghlts projects
- Assistance to GB Pn [nstt - Rcscearch projects forconsersvaion
of Himalayanenvironmert andmanagementofwetlad
&dcvelopnent m angrvesbiospher
- Suppot for plywood rsech
and wood substitution
prugrmme5c
ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION - PayavaranVahini - NationalEnvironmen t Awareness
AND AWARENESS - Assisunc to CPR enviromnental Campaign
education cntr, CEE & NMNH
Assistnce to SPCBs for
stngthening manpower
INTERNATONAL COOPERATION - CoardinationCommittec - Bilats Multilatcrlassisted
on exter,naly aided projects projects in environment & forsts
- OznCel forimlneming - Global envinmntal nissues.viz.
the Monal Protocol on ozonedeplction.climiatechang
Substancesdepletingthe bio-divrsity conservation and
OZOne LAyer nns-boundwy movement of
tur-Ministeda Group for hazrdous wastes
GlobalEnvirnnentalFacility - Agcd-a 21. Capacity 21 and
Globad Environimnal Facility
- Multilacral cooperation thrugh
SAARC/SACEP
- Intmnational Centre forlntegrted
Mountain Development
(IC1MOD) Kathmandu
- EEH
Table 12: Programme o1 Other Mlnisteries and Departmenis of Govemment of India
MINSlTYiDEPAR111ENTS O ANIZA110ONAL NONtORGANISA1TKNAL
AGRICULTURE * ACRP Watershed Development
* Agricultural Research Programme
& Education Rainled agriculture In Natonal
* Fisheries Research Watershed Developrent
Support Project
- Support to Agricultural Western Ghats Development
Colleges/Educational Proect
InsUtutions Soil conservation
- Small Farmers Agri-business Bio-lerilizers
consortium Integrated Pest Management
- Schemes for women pani-
cipation in agriculture
- State Land Use Boards
WATERRESOURCES - Peoples participation in - CADP
irrlgation - NWMP
- R&D In Water resources - Flood Control Programmes
planning
RURALDEVELOPMENT - Constitutional status for - Jawahar Rozgar Yqoana
Panchayatl Rai Institutions - DPAP
- TRYSEM - IREP
- Rajiv Gandhi National Drinking
Water Mission for rural water
supply
V Waste land development
projects of NWDB
INDUSTRIES - Modemisation of Steel Industry
* National Material Policy
Project
* UNDP assisted pesticides
devebpment project
- R&D programme lor coir
industry
LABOUR - Rural Woders Education
Programme
ENERGY/COAL * Solar Energy Centre - IDBI scheme for energy
- Training for Enviromnental conservation in industries
Management of Power - IREDA
Projects - NRSE
- Biogastsolar/wind/micro hydel
- Coal washing/beneficiation
- R&D for energy plantations
and agricultural waste
utilisation
- R&D for commerrialisation
of waste disposal
- R&D for battery powered
vehides
HEALTH AND FAMILYWELFARE Centre for Epidemiological - Clinical Research on Drugs
Health Intelligence
URBANDEVELOPMENT - Constitutional status to - Environrnent improvement of
urban local bodies Urban Slums
MINISTRYJDEPART11ENTS ORGANIZAIX)NAL NON.ORGANISATK)NAL
- Building materials and - Urban basic services
technology promotion - Integrated development of
council small and medlum lowns
- NCR for Delhi
- Nehru Rozgar Yolana
- Low cost sanitation & small
towns water supply schemes
SCIENCE ANDTECHNOLOGY - Establishrnent ot Department
of Bio-Technology
- Technology Information.
forecasting and assessment
coundl
- Assistance for Natonal
Technology/Societal Mission
Ir vacoinatlonlimmunization/
drinking water supplyl
wasteland developmentl
livestock improverment
- National Centre lor Medium
Range Weather Forecasting
- Indian Vaccine Corporation Ltd.
- Bio-Technology Consortium Lid.
* Training/HRD In Bio-Technology
- National facilities for germn
plasm collection
- Technologies absorptionl
adoption scheme
- Transfer and trading in
technology scheme
SPECIALAREADEVELOPMENTI - Hil area development
REGIONALPROGRAMMES programme
- DDP
APPENDIX 1
"INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES AND ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT`*
Wih rising cot sciousness about the environment and the dangers involved in allowing it
to degenerate, there is an urgent need to build methods of protecting and preserving our natural
resources. However, considering that these form the bedrock for economic growth and devebp-
ment, and also supportthe basic needsof muchof the population,they mustbeputtooptionaluse.
This involves integrating environmental concems with all aspects of economic activity, and the
making of correct choices and trade-offs.
To ensure that the best choices are being made and that the value of protecting the
environment is not being ignored, adequate human re source devebpment, especially through
properly designed training programmes, needs to be promoted. A country like India, which prides
itself on having a large force of trained humanpower,is currently deficient in experts and trained
professionals in the lield of environment. There are also a large body of professionals and
administrators who have neverbeen exposed to environmental issues. There seems. therefore, a
needtodevelopacomprehenswvetrainingprogramrnmewhichensuresthatallinterestandconcerned
persons have access to effective training opportunities.
Training Needs In Environment
The distinction between training and education is not always clear. Training, can:
a. impartinformation
b. changeattitudes
c. develop skills
1. The categories of persons that need to be trained
In sofarastraining isthe impartingof specificskils, it involvesthosecategories of persons
whoareeitherexpeced, asapart of theirwork,toperformcertaintaskswhich requireskils,orthose
whowouldliketo, ascitizensorasrnembersof voluntarygroups,perform suchtasks. Broadlythey
can be classified as follows:
1.1 Civil Servants: who are required to assist in the formulation of policiesand plans, and to
carry out development projects and activities
1 2 Professionals both technical (engineers, scientists, lawyers,judges, etc.). and social
scientists and ma..zgers, both within and outside the Govemment, are involved in
designing, assessing and managing projects and activitieshavepotentialoractual impact
ontheenvironment.
- - Ed~~~~~~~8
13 Educatorsandtrainerswhoeducateandtrainotherpeopleand,therefore, needtobeinitially
trainedthemsleves.
1 A Environmental activists who are involved in fighting for the environment, often against
govemment orcorporate interests, and thereby need the skillsto effectively carry onthis
fight.
1.5 Students and the general public who might want to develop certain skills which would
empower them to act effectively in the protection and regeneration of the environment.
Training is required across levels and at different stages of work and career.
2 The types of training that each cateory needs
Different categories of people need training to better perform the tasks related to the
conservation, protection and regeneration of the environment, and to use one or more of the
available strategies. Some of the tasks and strategies torwhich training needs to be imparted are
conservation and regeneration of forests
conservation of wildlife and biological diversiy
protection of air, water, and land, from pollution
- conservation and regeneration of ecologically sensitive areas
- protecfion of areas with special environment problems
- conservationof natural resources
- protection from hazards
- use of legal processes
- erwironmental impact assessment methodobgy
- environmental management
- environmental planning
- ecodevelopment and joint forest management
- technological development and application
- research methods
- monitoring methods and technologies
- education and awareness methods
- special attention should to be paid to training in environmental impact assessment (EIA)
The need for sustainable development involves, among otherthings, the ability to assess
the impact of development activities and projects on the environment. This enables the
making of correct choices,so that only those projects that are environmentally viab' 3 are
given the green signal, and even their environmental impact is minimised. The EIA also
gives a direction for the development of new processes and techologies, help in
determining the real social costs of products and services, and highlights the need for
conserving resources and finding ordeveloping substitutes for scarce ones-
The rapid rateof economicgrowth in Indiameansthatthereare, atany giventime, alarge
numberofdevelopment projects intheplanningorimplementalion stage. Unfortunately,
adequate expertise and institutional structures are not yet available in India to speedily
and comprehensively assess their environmental impact. This has often led to delays in
the clearance of projects or, worse, the clearing of projects which were not properly
assessed and consequently not environmentally viable.
There is, therefore, a need to build trained human power in EIA, especially among
independent institutions, andwithin the govemment.
Summary of Findings
of the 43 organisations who completed our questionnaire, 24 were NGOs. Most of the
organisations (79�h) wereworking inthe ruralareas, especially atdistrict level,undertheir
traininrgprogramme.
general environment was the major thrust area covered byr most of the organisations
(62.rf6). 39.5% of the organisations specdied their thrust area as Forestry.
urban environment, rehabilitation. wildlie and biodiversityconservation.prciectformwaltion
and environmental economics were some areas which were barely covered by the
organisations.32.5 2of theorganisationswereinvolvedintraininggovemmentofficials,
and they weretrained in almost in all thrust areas (92.8%h). Farmers and Non Govemment
professionals were the othertraineestocover 85% oftthe thrust areas. Politicians werethe
only trainees who were not covered by any organisation for any thrust areas.
participatory rural appraisal and planting trees were the major skills imparted by various
organisations, whereas wildife managemrent and veterinary practices were most poorly
covered by the organisations.
328coursesweeorganisedbythevariousorganisation. and the numberof trainees ranged
from2to6330 percourse. Theduration of thecoursesalsovariedfrom 1 to1 05dayswith
50.6% of them being held ior between 1 and 3 days.
Extracts from study conducted by Singh, Shekar, et al (1993); Indian Institute of
Public Administration, New Delhi.
APPENDIX4I
"CLEANER TECHNOLOGIES IN INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION"
1. Status of Pollution Control in India
Since independence, India has established a well diversified industrial structure with a
sizable capacity in basic and heavy industry. The share of value added to the GDP by the
manufacturing sectorisexpectedto riseto 20 percent bytheyear2000 ADwith an averageannual
growth rate ot 8 percent.
Overthe years the country has achieved substantial measure of self reliance, as a result
of policies iniiated from Second Plan onwards. Thecountry now produces the entire quantum of
coal, tractors and other agricutural equipments, some 80 to 95 percent of steel, industrial
machinery and machine tools, pnwer generation and transmission equipment, mining and earth
moving machinery, vehicles, nitrogenous fertilizers, drugs anddrug intermediates, and morethan
two thirds of zinc, paper and news print and variety o1 other industrial products.
The expansion in industry sector,however, has beentowards capital and energy intensive
sectors which are also the most polluting. Also, nearly 50 percent of the total industrial output in
monetary lerms is contributed byover2 million small scale industries which also account for 60
to 65 percent of thetotal industrial pollution. Also,the useof toxicchemicals in industry hasgrown
phenomenally.
Endeavour on environmental protection, so far, in India, have relied on strict regulatory
measures. There are some two hundred enactments that have a bearing on environment. Those
mostrelevantto industryarethe FactoriesAct(1948), Water(Preventionand Controlof Pollution)
Act (1974), Forest Conservation Act (1980), Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act (1981).
Environment (Protection) Act (1986), and the Public Liability Insurance Act (1991).
As per MOEF requirements, industial units are required toobtainfromthe concerned State
Pollution Control Boardaconsent tooperatelhe unit. Such consent is subjecttotheunitcomplying
with the standards prescribed by the Board. A provisional consent is given if the unit has an
acceptable programme for installing necessary measures for controlling pollution. Failure in
complying with the prescribed standards orconditions renders the unit liable for prosecution. By
mid-1 991, 4500 prosecutions have been made bythe central and state pollition control boards of
which 1133 (about 25%) have been decided.
Despite legal mecbanismforenvironment for environmental management, only about 50
percent of the large/medium scale industries have provided complete/partial emission/effluent
control systems and many of these do not achieve stipulated standards. Further, the small-scale
industries (SSls) have not yet been subjected to rigorous pollution control.
MOEF in 1991 has formulated a 1 5-Point Action Plan under which actions have been initiated to
control pollution inthe 1 7categoriesof majorpolluting industriesanddirected State PollutionControl
Boards to ensure the compliance of Standards in these industries. Pollution Control Status o1 17
categories of industries in 23 status/Union Territories including all major industrial eslates have
been collected, collated and compiled. Defaulting units have been identified and action is being
taken against them.
2 Environment - Industry Policy Linka=es
The basic structure of Industrial Policy in India has been guided by the Industrial Policy
Resolution of 1956. From time to time, Industry Policy has been modified through statements In
1973,1977,1980 and recently in 1991.
The objectives and goals of industrial policy in India are rapid expansion of opportunities
for gainiul employment, progressive reduction of social and economic dispartiies, removal of
poverty and attainment of self reliance. Promotion of small scale industry on one hand and
restriction of size of large industriesthrough Monopolies and Restricted Trade Practices Act have
been the tools for achieving these objectives.
Till recently, industrial licensewas required forestablishing new unit, expansionof existing
units, change inthe products as also changeof location. As per Industrial Policy Statemrentot 1991
industrial licensing has been abolished forall projects except for industries relatedtosecurity and
strategic concems, social reasons, hazardous chemicals, highly polluting industries an items of
elhistconsumption.
In the industry sector, the major environmental implications arise from small-scale
industrial (SSI) units. The Govemment of India has a oolicy of promoting steady growth of the SSI
sector and has accordingly introduced a large numnber of fiscal incentives and other measures.
Thoughthe labourandcapitalproductivityof this sectoriscomparabletothatof medium and large
industries, its matrial productivity is usually lower, thereby resulting in more pollution per unit of
output.
Some of the problems related to obsolete technology associated with higher levels of
pollution employed by Indian industries relate, in addition to inadequate infrastructure for
implementation of legislation, to concessions given to small scale industries and policy of
administered prices for large industries such as steel, fetilizer, cement, powergeneration, alcohol
anddrug industriestherebyfailingto introducecompetition. Chemicals alreadybanned orobsolete
in other industrialised countries are still being produced in India. In other cases, relatively dirty
industrisorprocesseswhichfindthemeselvesunderconsiderableeconorfucand environmental
pressure in developed nations, have been installed in India, exacerbating the environmental
problems associated with industrial sources.
Theprotectionofferedtoindustryandemphasisondecentrarzationof industrialdevelop-
menthaveresultedinadoptionofsub-optimalscalesofproduction, mostnotably,forsomesectors
such as pulp and paper, sugar and distilleries, leatiSr tanning and chemical industry. India's
chemical plants are tiny by international standards. In case of many products, the capacity of a
singleplant indeveloped countries is higherthanthe entire installed capactyof theproduct In India,
which itself is distribuled in large number of units. Adoption o1 small production scale frequently
increases the cost of production and cost of pollution control, making it financially duiculo for small
companies to meel emission slandards.
Technoogy employed in Indian lndustrylagsbehindthatof Newly IndustrialisedCountrles
due to relatively low level of indigenous technology which is, in tum, due to low level of R A D
undertaken and stringent control and rgulation o1 direct foreign investment and technology
agreements till recently. Though technology was imported in certain cases gap exists in all
important industries.
3. Pollution Prevention versus Control
The optionsfor environment management in industrysector include, onthe hand, reactive
control measures such as end-of-the-pipetreatmerit technologies and media-specific regulations
for waste discharges, and on the other, anticipative and preventive strategies such as adoption of
cleaner technologies of production and integrated planning based on considerations of regional
carrying capacity.
Environmental policy for industry in India, till recently, had focussed mainly on polLtion
control through end-of-the-pipe treatment which allow the wasteful use o1 resources and then
consumefurtherresources to solvetheenvironmental problemsin a particularmedium. Also, end-
of-the-pipecontroltechnologies, more oftenthan not,transferpollutants from oneenvironmnental
medium to another and consume resouces out of proportion to the accrued benefits.
ruture raw material and energy scenarios, the impact that the industry and its products
haveontie natural resourcebase andenvironmenial quality, andthe necessarythrustbeing given
toindustr algrowth inourcountry,warrant acomprehensivestrategytodeal withenvironmentaland
economic problems of the industry.
As new industries come up to meet developmental imperatives, it will be necessary to
impose more stringent emission standards progressively to maintain acceptable levels of
environmental quality. Ilftheoption of more intensive pollutioncontrolisto be avoided inthefuture,
then i is necessary to adopt a strategy of pollution preention based on pollution, and reuse wastes
as secondary resources to the extent possible.
4. Conceotof CleanerProduction
Cleanerproduction has been definedby UNEPastheconceptualandproceduralapproach
to production that demands that all phases of the life cycle of a product should be addressed wih
the objective of prevention or minimization of short and long term risks to humans and to the
environment.
Thegoalofcleanerproduction is essentiallythatol sustainabledevelopment; production
-Ei1
processes.product cycles, and consumption pattems which allow for human development, and the
provision of basic needs without degrading or disrupting the ecosystems in which human
development production philosophy are that the measure should be preventive and integrative.
5. CleanerTechnologiesof Industrial Production
Cleaner Technology is the practical application of knowledge, methods and means so as,
within the needs of man, to provide the most rational use of natural resources and energy and to
protect the environment.
Clean Technology is based on improved manufacturing methods that require less raw
materials and energy to obtain equitable levels of outpur of identical or betterquality.
Clean Technology also make greater, if not full, use ot wastes and recydable materials and
are dependent upon innovation and high level of cooperation between crifferent industries,
particularly when exchange of certain wastes are involved.
There are three broad elements of cleaner technologies, viz.
- Resource conservation technologies aiming at waste minimization at source through product
change (substitutior/conservatiorvcomposition); production process changes involving raw
material changes, technology changes and better house keeping.
* End-of-pipe treatment technologies designed to recover raw materials, energy, water and by-
products
- Waste utilization technologies for reclamation and utilization of wastes as secondary raw
materials
The concept of cleanertechnologies is being advocated in different parts of the world under
various names such as low and non-waste technologies, environmentally sound technologies,
waste recycling, residue utilization, and resource recovery technologies.
The ultimate cleanertechnology will be based on renewable resources as raw material &
energy, and transformaton through highly efficient bioiechnology to produce environmentally
benignproducts.
6. Major Issues in Promotion of CleanerTechnologies in India
One of the major constraints to technology transfer is lack of information regarding local
markets such as availability o1 trained manpower. This may result in over/under estimation of
capital and operational costs.
There is a certain perceived risk that discourages entrepreneurs from adoption the
ER
relativelynewconceptof cleanertechnologies. Acombinationof informational,financial, economic
and legal measures, therefore, need to be devised in orderto promote waste minimzation through
cleanertechnologies.
Themajorproblem in promotionof cleanerlechnologies in Indiarelatetolackofapproprate
information and resuhing misconceptions.e.g. certain processtechnologiesmay needcontinuous
inputs and may break down if batch process is being used. However, in case of small scale
industries, batch feeding rather than continuous feeding is a more realistic possibility. Also, the
qualityof raw material may besubstantiallydifferentfromthe oneforwhichcleanertechnology has
been developed e.g. raw material used in Inian pulp and paper industry.
Industrial design parameters are crucial fbrcleanertechnologies. Many atimes imported
technologies are often not adaptable to local condiions, infrastructure and environment.
Promotion of the cleanertechnrlogies is often impeded because pollutingtechnologies
have a price advantage,current financial resources are insufficienttocoverthe incremental costs
involved, and addiional financial resources are not available. The cost difference between
traditional and the cleanertechnologies is aggravated byfailureto implement legal measures for
pollutioncontrol.
There is also lack of coordination and direction in R & D efforts and inadequate thrust for
technologylranstertrom lab-to commercial scale. These problems arise mainly dueto insuffcient
mission oriented approach of laboratories; inadequacy of funds for pibtscale demonstration of
technology transfer by scientific and technological personnel engaged in R&D work.
*Extracts from study for the EAP conducted by National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur.
APPENDIX-Ill
"MANAGEMENTOF WATER QUAUTY"
Quantity and Quality of water Resources
The planning and development ol water resource need to be govemed by national
perspective. The drinking water needs of people and livestock have to be met in both urban and
nural areas. Domestic and industrial water need have largely been concentrated inornearprincipal
cities, but the demand of rural society is expected to increase sharply as the development
programme improve economic condiions. The demand of water for hydro and thermal power
generation and forthe industrial uses is also expected to increase substantially. As a result water,
ascarce resource,will becomeeven morescareinfuture. This underscorestheneed forthe utmost
efficiency in water utilization.
Water quality is another important aspect that deserves aitention. It is basically a
determinedbythebacterialand!hephysico-chemicalpa.ameters. Waterrraybetermedunfitfor
drinking purposes because of excessive salinity, brackishness, fiuorides, sulphates, hardness.
ntrates, iron, manganese and pesticides.
Point and Nonpoint Sources of Pollution
Whileit iseasytounderstandpointsourcesof pollutioninvolvingwastes.1ushed intodcy;s
sewers or discharged directly by an industry, nonpoint sources of pollution poses a challenge as
there are no easy means to accurately measure i. In fact, nonpoint source pollution is
contaminatingthesurface and groundwatersuppliesto a considerable extent. Contamnination of
ihese water bodies affect drinking water supplies, fishing areas, recreational streams and lakes.
Further, any estimate of nonpoint pollution must consider specific area conditions such as
topography, climate, and landuse. The specific contribution of each source is extremelydifficult
to determine at ary one location and varies from area to area.
The majorsourcesof non-pointpollutionareagnicultural activitescontnbutingunabsorbed
pesticides and fertilizers, deforestation activities contributing sediments, municipal and soild
wastesdisposal contributing organic and inorgranicpollutarntsthrough leaching, mine spoildumps
contnrbuting minerals through surface runoff and leaching, and congregations at places of
piligrimage resuling in significant quantities of human and animal wastes.
Backlog in Water Quality Management
Water quality management in India has essentially involved regulatory measures as
provided intheWaterAct 1974. Despitethe existenceof Central and State Pollution Control Boards
for one and half half decades, only about 50 percent of the large/medium scale industries have
provided complete/partial emissionleffluentcontrol systems and manyof these still do not achieve
stipulated standards. Further, the small-scale industries have not yet been subjected to rigorous
polution control. Very few cities have municipal wastewatertreatmentfacilities. The efforts so far
are directed towards control of pollution from point sources while pollutiondueto nonpoint sources
istotallyoverlooked. Unfonlunately,only hallof thepollutantscomefrompipes.theresicome ,rom
nonpoint sources. No documented information on sources ol pollution is available except for
inventory published by the Central Pollution Conlrol Board in 1985.
The notable activitiesforimprovement of waterquality iaken upbythe Govemrnent include
National Drinking Water Mission, Ganga Action Plan, Scheme of Common Effluent Treatment
Plants, and National River Action Plan.
In the area of techologies, water treatment technologies are well established for the
removal of turbidity, suspended solids and coliforrrs. Water emission technologies have been
developed and demonstrated for defluoridation and iron removal. Package treatment plams are
indigenously available for meeting industrial water quality requirements. However, available
technologies for community water supply fail to eliminate excessive salinity, pesticides and
nitrates. Also, substantial efforts are requiredtodevelop packagewatertreatmentplantsforsmall
communities.
The technologies practiced in the area of wastewater treatment, with a few exceptions
sufferfrorndrawbackssuchas high initial and operational costsand land requiremernts. Inthe recent
past technologies have been developed and demonstrated for bio-methanation of industrial and
domesticwastewater. Technologies forrecycle and reuse otwastewater are also available or most
of the industries. Major R&D areas are application of genetic engineering for resource recovery
based waslewatertreatmem.
The difficulty in assessment of impact of programmes such as Ganga Action plan on
improvementinwaterqualityrelatetonon-availabilityo1objectivemethodologyforcomputationof
waterquality index.
Extracts from study for the EAP conducted by National Environmental Engineering
Research Institute (NEERI), Nagpur.
APPENDIXtV
"NATURALRESOURCESACCOUNTING"*
The need for NRA is now widely recognized. Much activity isgoing on inthisarea in many
countries. However, as yet, a common generally acceptable framework for NRA is not available.
Thestatistical division of UN'sdepartmentof economic and social development is engaged inthe
process of evolving a common framework. It may take a long lime before one is evolved.
Thetreatmentof environmental issues intheaccountingframeworkwasinitiated by Profs.
Nordhaus andTobin inthe UnitedStates andthe workondevelping a natural resource accourning
framework began in Norway in 1974. Whereas the first approach attempted to incorporate
environment in national accounts,the latterfocussedon developingaseparatephysical accourding
system for national and environmental resources. The Norwegian approach dividesthe resource
in two broad categories: material and environmental. The material resources have been further
subdivided asminerals such as hydrocarbons, stone, sand andotherminerals; biologicalresources
suchas air, waterand land:and inflowingresourcessuch aswind, solarradiation, hydrologicalcycle
and ocean currents. Environmental resources wereconsidered as status resources andcovered
air, waler, soil and space. Quality issuehasbeen majoriactorfcrtheenvironmental resourcesand
the accounts contain emission records over a geographical region to indicate the state of the
environment. These accounts have been used to forecast future use of natural resources and
assess related environmental impacts. Energyand landuseaccounts have alsobeenquite useful.
French accounts classification is on similar lines as the Norwegian. The construction of acoDunts
in the case of the French system is more comprehensive and includes some monetary valuation
part also. The Japanese system induded environmental considerations in their accounts by
incorporalion of the measure Net National Welfare. This was arrived at after modifying National
Income figures for various factors, including environmental factors. The adjusted Net National
Welfare measure revealed that Japan's GNPgrowth between 19555to 1983should beconsidered
5.8 times instead as the traditional GNP accounts would suggest.
The System of National Accounts (SNA) published by UN also indudes several features
oi accounting for natural resources. It considers stocks and Ilows for tangible assets such as
forests, agricultural land and subsoil minerals. The natural resource that can be transacted in the
market place are only included, and assets in the public domain such as water, atmosphere etc.
are excluded. The valuation of the assets is based on market value. The production of goods and
services outside enterprise sector, for example by households is not induded in SNA and
govemment sectors' goods and services are valued at factor cost. SNA also does not fully albw
forchanges in natural asset base as it does not have investment and depreciation of mineral assets.
It includes only production activities related to these assets. Since even the existing SNA have not
been properly implemented by various countries (i.e. statistics not available in SNA format), UN
has considered inclusion of depreciation accounts for natural resources through 'satelite
accounts'. Therefore, the ecronomic indicators of growth would rermain unchanged and users are
free to make their own evaluations based on information in satellite accounts.
System for Integrated Environmertal and Economic Accounts (SEEA) which is under
development at U.N. incorporates the changes in SNA to account for natural resources In a
comprehensive manner, but without mergingthe Natural Resources Account with SNA. In SEEA,
physical description oof natural environment is extended to include information on the physical
flows between the environment and economy in the existing natural resources account and
environmental statistics, including material and energy balances. Monetary valuation ol natural
resources is also included in the natural resources accounts of SEEA, which are integrated as
satellite accounts with the main income accounts. The proposed system (SEEA) also considers
disaggregation ol parts of SNA, that are of special relevance to environmental aspects. It would
also include non-market valuation of economic use of the environmental in rmonetary terms.
Physical dataon the flowirom natural environmenttothe economy and flowoftheresidualsofthe
economic activities back to the environment is also included. SEEA will also have a description
of the natural environment to facilitate analysis of impacts of economic use.
World Resources Institute (WRI) developed a methodology for natural resource accounts
and inhiated a few country studies using their methodology. Results for a few countries viz.
Indonesia, Costa Rica & Philippines have been published by WRI. Physical accounts are set up
for natural resources and changes in stock are recorded forthe accounting period. Procedure to
determine stock for Oil and Natural gas and other minerals, sub-soil deposits of waters, timber
resources, forests, agriculural land and biological resources has been discussed. The valuation
is done onthe principle o economic rent in WRI methodology. Therernt is roughly equivalent tothe
proft eamedfrom a natural resource stock. Finallythe income accounts fornatural resources are
integrated wnh the national accounts.
Need br a Special Approach to NRA for India
Evenifawell-deveopedframeworkforNRAweretobeavailable,wewouldwanttoexamine
it for its appropriateness to India. India being:
- a large, populous, poorcountrythat needs economicdevelopment;
- a country where agriculture is dominant;
- a country in which much economy activity is in small and informal sector;
- a country in which hundreds of millions of poor depend on natural resources for their
subsistence;
- a country where bio-mass dependence is high for energy needs in rural and urban areas;
- a country with a large cultural diversty;
- a country wih a large ecological diversity;
a country whose traditions recognize and respect rights of non-human beings;
a country which has still preserved many o1 is virgin forests and bio-diversky;
The resources we emphasize and the priorities we give in preparing NRA would have to
reflect these characteristics.
Once a broad schematic frame work for NRA has been devised, it will need to be applied
to majorareas such as soil resources, airresources, water resources and forest resources and bio-
diversity. Varalions of the techniques used will be necessary between sectors. The non-market
sector including environmental impact, employment opportuniies, unaccounted activities, elc.
would alsoneedtobstakenintoaccount. Similaradjusimentswouldneedlobe madeforresources
which aredepletablebut recoverable. Essentiallytheactionplansthat arerequiredintheareasof
natural resource accounting are the establishment of a frame work, intensive data collection and
an application of the framework in environmental planning. I is essential that detailed studies be
commenced.
* Extracts from study lor the EAP conducted by Parikh, Kirit, et al (1993); Indira Gandhi
Institute of Development Research, Bombay.
APPENDIX - V
"CONSERVATION OFWETLANDS"'
The Indian sub-continent, due to its vast landmass, diverse climatic conditions, geology
and topography, represents a great diversity of wetlands habitats which supports unique
biodiversity and large human populations.
The present krnowledge about these wetlands is scanty except from a few welfknown
wetlands which have been studied and are being conserved to some extent. There is also a rapid
increase in man-made water bodies which need to be adquately documented. A systematik
assessment is required of the degradation o older welands owing to abiotic and biotic factors.
There is tremendous potential within the wetlands in the country for the conservation of
biodiversity as well as their continuation as life support systemns. The proper management of
wetlands for the sustainable development of the rural population is an integral component of a
resource utilisation strategy for developing countries like India. This can only be achieved by a
knowledge of the structure and function of the wetlands and human dependence on them for
sustenance.
The are underwetlands in India is estirnatedto be. (1) natural wetlands 1,450,871 ha and
(2) man-made wetlands 2,589,266 ha. The Indian coastline is over 7500 km with diverse wetland
habitats like mangroves, lagoons, salt marshes, mudflats, etc.
Indian wetlands can be broadly classfied into the following:
(1) Himalayanwetlands,whichincludehighaltitudewetlands,andthoseofthesub-Himalayan
rgeion.
(2) Indo-Gangetic wetands which constiute the largest wetland regime in the country
comprisingthemajorriversystemssuch asthoseof theGanga, Brahmaputra, Narmada,
Tapti, Godavari, Krishna, and Cauvery.
(3) Coastal wetlands which stretch all along the long coastline of the Indian peninsula and
associated islands.
The major problems faced by Indian wetlands in general are:
(a) Siltation
Deforestation and land-use practices in the catchment areas of the wetlands have
accelerated soil erosion resulting in sedimentation of most of the wetlands.
I
(b) Weed in!estation
Uncontrolled growth of weeds and aquatic vegetation due to nutrient enrichmnent of
wetlands is leading to eutrophication of small and large water bodies. This results in diminished
ecological efficiency and could end in the death of the wetland.
(C) bEncrachment
As a result of increased human needs due to the population explosion in the courtry,
shallow wetlands have been subjected to constantly increasing pressure from agriculture, urban
expansion, and development projects. The shrinkage of wetland habitat and their alteration is an
increasing threat to wetlands.
(d) Pollution
Although organic pollution was known to exist in Indian wetlands for some time, chemical
pollution of the waters is an consequence of unplanned industrialiation in recent years. Almost all
wetlands are subjected to different degrees of poirt of non-point pollution. This has resulted in the
slow poisoning of the aquatic ecosystems at increasing levels.
(e) AnthmMenicactivities
Development projects, industrialization, urbanization, over-fishing. hunting, exploitation of
mangroves, etc. have seriously affected the quality of wetlands depleting natural resources. In
many cases the wetlands are beyond restoration levels and cannot be used sustainably.
Some short-term projects for rapid assessment of wetland resources are essential for
working out a long term Management Action Plan for Indian wetlands.
Consideringthe diverse nature and the large numberofwetlandstok be surveyed and the
thrustareasof managementforwhichvital information istobegenerated, aworking actionplan
is suggested. In this action plan, projects are grouped into four main areas to generate the
necessarybase-lineknowledgeaboutthepresentstatusandfunctioningofthewetlands, inkages,
dependence of human populations and the impact of anthropogenic activiies on the wetlands.
Detailedspecificstudiescan alsodemonstratethesustainableuseofresourcesfromthewetLands,
particularly by localpopulations and theiractive participation inconserving biodiversity as wel as
abiotic resources.
Some of the specific themes to be included in the action plan proposals are mentioned
separately.
Theprojectsmentionedbeblowareessentiallycentrallycoordinatedcolaborativeprojects.
Research ard other action orogramme projects are to be carried out by identified organisations in
cooperation with the concerned Central and State govemrnment agencies (Irrigation, Forest,
Fisheries, etc.) and NGOs. International experts, if necessary, canbe involved intheprogramme.
Theproposed actionplantakes intoaccountrthe availablescientificdata, informationfrom
Stateand Central Govemment agencies, existing literatureand people'sexperiencewith regardto
wetlands inthecountry. It alsoconsidersthe recommendations madeby international and national
bodies and govemment committees on wetlands.
Theaction plans, atvarous stages, areexpectedtoincorporateareas rebtedtoprotection,
wildlife conservation, siltation control, afforestation, pollution and weed oontrol, reclamation and
alteration, legislation, improvement, utilization and management of the aquatic resources,
research, environmental education and publicawareness. Tosummarise, the actionplanswill have
an holistic approachtowards the managementof the diversewetlands forconservation and forthe
sustainable use of wetland resource.
* Extracts from study for the EAP conducted by Bombay Natural History Society,
Bombay.
APPENDIX -VI
"FORESTRr^
The State of Forests Report 1991, being the third assessment of the forest cover of the
country, highlights the fact that forest cover in the country is just about 19.44 percent of the total
geographical area. The area under dense forest cover is estimated at 11.71 per cent of the
geographical area. Most natural resources in India have been inappropriately used and it is clear
that forests in particular have been over-exploited and very badly degraded. This has seriously
damaged the capacity of the natural environment to support life-systems on a sustained basis.
FuelWoodNeeds
In India, wood-fuels still account for30 percentof the energyconsumption. Thetotal fuel-
wood removal from forests, both authorised and anauthorised, is estimated to be more than 236
million cubic metres as against sustainable levels of production of no more than 40 million cubic
metres. Likewise, as against a current permissible cut from borests of 12 million cubic metres of
timber, the annual requirement is over 28 million cubic metres.
The minimumannual requirementof greenfodder is estimated at 882 milliontonnes, which
supportsacattlepopulationof around400 million.Theavailabilityofgreenfodderfrompermanent
pastures, agricultural landsandforests isestimated at about 50%ofthe requirements.Theabsence
of adequate grazing lands, orof proper grazing policy has meant destructive over-grazing within
forests.
Forests in Inria are also subject to recurrent fires. It is reported that over35 million hectares
of forest area is annually affected. Long term damage to forest wealth results. Forests are also
subjectto damage from encroachment. pattemsof cultivation and diversion of forest landfor non-
forest uses.
Onthepositive side, it mustbenotedthat India'sforestsarestill relativelyrichinfloraand
fauna. There are47.1 6 milion hectares of tropical forests, 6.76 million hectares sub-tropicalforests
and 6.42 million hectares of timber forests in addition to alpine and other forests. Considerable
portion of the area earmarked as reserved forests are reasonably well preserved and indicatethat
with adequate resources and well trained man-powercommitted to the forests, deforestation and
degradation can be arrested.
The forest policy has begun to receive considerable atterntion at the highest levels of
Govemment. The need for involving forest dwellers in the management of forests is now widely
recognised. It is accepted that a forest policy cannot be purely commercial in its orientation. It is
also realised that forest wealth has not been properly valued. Fire-wood and limber which are
illegally removed and numerous and numerous non-timberforest products which arecollected and
consumed by the rural poor are hardly taken into national income accounting.
-ER
There is no serious effort to evaluate the intangible contributions ol forests such as soil
conservation and the role ol integrated watersheds. The environmental costs as a resuk o1 the
implementation ol large developmental projects and the diversion of forest land lor non-forests
purposes have also not been properly considered. These are all issues which the Environment
Action Prograrnmeprojectconsiders elsewherein thediscussionon naturalresources accounting.
The importance of this exercise in the forestry sector cannot be neglected.
Forest management needs to address itsel to some crucial issues namely:
to arrest deforestation;
- to ensure regeneration in ihe forests;
- to check the loss of species, communities and eco-systems;
- to raiseforestproductivityto meetthebasic needsof localpopulation: fire-wood,fodder,
small timber and food
- tocreategainful employment forforest dwellersin particularandihe rural poor ingeneral;
and
- to increase the area under forest cover to the stipulated level i.e. 33 per cent of total
geographicalarea
To achieve these objectives, various assumptions and approaches regarding forest
management needtobere-examined.Theconceptof land use, and altemative ard conpeting uses
for land, the integration between agriculture, forests, fisheries and grasslands, the link between
forests and the tibal people all need to be looked al in detail. Careful studies and research are
needed. A functional classification of forests may perhaps also be necessary.
In addition, the possibilities of increasing forest cover, and the productivity of existing
forests, andtheneed foraddtional investmerntforthis purposemustbetakenin account. Astrategy
to bring marginal lands and wastelands under permanent tree cover and to better manage the
demand for fuel-wood and small timber is necessary. Detailed studies need to be made of non-
limber and non-market conrinbutions of forests, and of the impact of forest degradation and
consequent loss of biodiversity, on the rural poor and the tribals.
Theactionprogrammessneededinthefforestrysectorarebeing puttogetherintheNational
Forestry Action Plan. However, the crucial need is no changing theorierntation of forest policy and
generating research and studies into hitherto neglected aspects of the forest/human interface.
Extracts from study fbr the EAP conducted by Lal, J.B. et al (1993); Indian Institute of
Forest Management, Bhopal.
APPENDIX - Vil
"ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION"
Environmental education (EE) haas become an important component of the plans and
programmesof bothgovemmeient andckizens'agencies in India. Buttheefforts toprofnote It remain
scattered anduncoordinated, resultk in nduplicationontheone hand, andunfilledgapsontheother.
There istherelorea needfora nationalactionplanandframework, no?asan impositbnoverexisting
efforts but with the aim of integrating and supplementing them to overcome their individual and
collective shortcomings. This report is anoverviewofthestatusof EE lnthecountry, and identifies
broad strategies which can help to develop a national action plan.
History and conceptual framework
Forthe purposesof this report, EE isdefined as creating an awareness of and concern for
environmental issues, disseminating specifk information on environment, and providing general
skills to assess and tackle environmental problems. EE came centre-stage of the intemational
arena atthe UN Conferenceon Environment (Stockholm, 1972), Recommendation No.96of which
called for an "intemaational programme in EE". The UNESCO-UNEP Intemational Environment
Education Programme was iniiated subsequently.
To assess the role and performance of EE, the following framework has been found to be
useful:
a. Aims and Objectives :As defined atthe Intemational Workshopon EE at Belgrade,1975,
EE has five broad objectives : creating awareness, inparting knowldge, generating
attiudes, teaching skills, and facilitating participation.
b. Target Groups: Specific groups which need to be addressed include school and college
students, other youths, non-illerates, women, professionals, govemment officials, politi-
cians, and other adults.
c. Kinds and Methods: Diversetargetgroups and environrmentalsituationsrequireadiversky
of EE approaches: (i) Formal education attemnpts to impart EE in a systematised,
institutionalised way, ending in a bormal certificate or degree. (ii) The non-formal EE
involves leaming outside this formalised structure. The methods used in EE range from
classroom teaching and use of textbooks to audio-visual techniques, exhibits and
demornstrations, workshops, field trips, drama, practical work, and print material.
d. Institutional Structures : National level agencies can specify broad guidelines, arrange
funding, and monitoractivities. Local and regional s ructuresare also needed toplan and
monitor EE.Whileformal EE is handled byschools, universitiesand otherinstitutions,non-
formal EE is best dealt with by citizens' groups (CGs) and cornmunities. Vertical and
horizontal integration is critical in the institutional handling of EE.
EE in India
At the govemment level, the need for EE is expressed in various policy and programme
documents since the 1960s. In the case of formal education, the National Council of Educational
Research andTraining (NCERT) attemptedtogive an environmental thrusttotheschool syllabus
at the primary and middle levels. At the primary level, the concept of an mintegrated" approach,
labelled wenvironmental studies", has been followed. At the secondary level, NCERT favours the
"infusion" of environmental concems into science subjects. Unfortunately, a similar approach is
not adopted for social science and arts subjects, and the inkusion or integration becomes even less
apparent at the higher secondary level. One attempt to make up this shortcoming is the
Environmental Orientation to School Education Scheme, which aims to bring local-specific
environmental issueswithinthepreviewof schcol leaching, andalsotoachievesomecoordination
between CGs, state education departments, and schools.
Atthe university level. there has been a dramatic rise in environmerd-related courses, with
over60univershies and institutionsofferingdegrees. However, there isalmost noatternpttoinfuse
environmental concems into the conventional subjects, and the environment-related subjects
remain technical in nature, with little social science and arts inputs. Teacher education, so vital to
impart an environmental oientation toteaching at all levels, is recently beginningto itself become
environmentally senskive. The Programme of Mass Orientation of School Teachers is one such
attempt, and the four regional colleges of teacher education offer innovative courses with an
environmental component. However, there still exists no formal EE course. Moreover is a paucity
of relevant resource persons forteachertraining,a lack of locale-specific information and contirnuing
rigidly in both school and teachertraining curricula.
Inthecaseofnon-formaleducation,thesceneisfarmoredynarni-.ThegovernmentalNFE
efforts began in the mid-1 960s, with the initiation of Socially Useful Protective Work (recently
renamedWork Experience) scheme. The largest attempt hasbeentheMinistryof Environmentand
Forests' National Environmental Awareness Camnpaign (NEAC). Averydiverse rangeof activities
have been supported. Further efforts bylhe govemment in non-formal EE include the sponsoring
of twoCentres of Excellence,which are supposedtofunctionas nodal agenciesforthe production
of EE material, teachertraining, and CG guidance, and the National Museum of Natural History,
which has become the focal point of a numrber of non-fornal activities. Unfortunately, the single
most glaring shortcoming in all these efforts is the lack of a systematic evaluation, which would
assess their effectiveness and suggest improvemnents. Besides, most schools still do not appear
to consider environment as a "socially useful' subject. Also deficient in this respect has been the
widespread School ScienceClubs Programme, started in 1957,butgiven sore sort of environmen-
tal orientation in the 1980s.
It isthe efforts of CGs in non-formal EE which are noteworthy. A huge numberof citizens
and community groups are involved, ranging from grassrools mass movements such as Chipko
(usingtraditionaldrama forms Ike the Bhagvad Kathato impartthe message of forest conservation)
and Namada BachaoAndolan (using tribaltheme songs toswread theirarti-dam message),totiny
urban-based groups who communicateon highly ocalised issues, to popular science and literacy
movements which include an environmental message intotheirawareness programmes.
Our empirical survey of 140 CGs (of which about 60 responded) revealed a number of
interestingfactsabouttherangeof approaches, activiies, methods, andtargetgroups involvedin
EE programmes by CGs. While thediversity was great, somewhat disturbing was thefinding that
most CGs seemed to greatly prefer conventional methods like lectures, ignoring more effective
methods like audio-visuals and fieldtrips. Alsoof concem wasthat a vast majoriy addressed youth
as a target group, and few dealt with adulls and n on-lkerates. A large numberexpressed a paucity
ol EE material and equipment as a mapr handicap, and manyalso lelthe need lorgreateraccess
to information than was provided by govemment agencies.
MajorFindings
To rephrdsethe majorcritical findingsinterms ofthe EEframeworkpresentedabove,and
for the moment leaving aside the substantial gains achieved over the past few decades:
a. Aims and Objectives: Development of attitudes, imparting of skills, and encourdging
participation has logged behind the imparting of awareness and information. The need to
infuse environmental concems into allteaching remains largely unfull led. especiallyatthe
higher secondary and university levels of formal education.
b. Target Groups: Adults in general, and women, non-literates. professionals, and gover-
ment officials specifically, arestill inadequatelycoveredunderboth formal and non-formal
programTnes.
c. Kinds and Methods: Formal EE remains somewhat fragmentary,m and has notachieved
widespread and in-depth inclusion of non-tormal methods which would greatly enliven it.
Extracts from study for the EAP conducted by Warier, M and Kothart, A (1992); Indian
Institute of Public Administration, Delhi.
APPENDIX -VIII
"URBAN ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENrT*
India is gradually changing from a predominantly rural society to one with a substantial
urban population. Aocordingtothe 1991 Census. 217 million out of atotal population of 844 million
now live in urban areas; the urban population is projected to increase 1o 300 million by the tum of
the century.
These demographicchanges haveoccureddueloamajorstructuraltransormationof the
Indian economy. Urbanisation is the result of massive shifts of labourand capital from predomi-
nantly rural topredominantly urban activities. Agriculturewhichaccounted for55.8%of the Gross
Domestic Product in 1950-51 has declined to 32.4% in 1990-91. There has been a steady growth
in non-agricultural activities in the rural areas that are closeto cities and metropolian centres. Thus,
urbanisation is not a transiory phenomenon-ht reflects permanent structural changes that have
occured sinceindependence.
Thedecennial rateof growth of the urban population, however, has slackenedfrom46.1 %
in 1971-81 to 36.2%0 in 1981-91, which is in line withlhe general worldwide pattem of urbanisation.
Most of the states, except Himachal Pradesh and Kerala, had a lower rate of growth in 1981-91
comparedtothepreviousdecade, indicating adecelerationinthepaceof urbanisation. Whilefurther
research needs to be conducted on the reasons for deceleration, it is clear that the absorptive
capacity of the urban areas. particolarly of the largercities is reaching its limits. The quality of life
and the levels of poverty in urban areas are as bad if not worse than those of the rural areas. There
has been a progressivetightening of urban labour markets, and it is not clear if the urban wage in
the informal sector is any higher than the rural wage for agricultural labour. Unemployment and
underemployment ratesare extremely high in manyoftheurban areas. But, even with reduced rates
of migration, the cities and towns continue to grow due to natural increase.
There are 23citieswith apopulation of morethan a million (metros) ofwhichfouraremnega
cities (Bombay, Cacutta, Delhi and Madras) with popu lation exceeding 5 million.The miNion plus
cities account for half of India's urban population. The number of million plus cities has increased
dramatically from 12 in 1981 1o 23 in 1991, and is projected to increase to 40 by 2001. The focus
is therefore on the environmental problems laced by the metropolitan cities.
The environment ofthe metropolitan cities has been deteriorating fora numberof reasons:
1. The gap between demand and supply of infrastructural services has been continuously
widening. Increasingpressure ofpopulation, particuarlytheskewednessofdistrbutionof
* urban population in mega-cities and metros, andthe escalating percapitacost of providing
urban services, account forthe deterioration of infrastructure services and amenities.
2. The accumulated backlog in urban housing alongwith a rapidly increasing populationof the
urban poor has resulted in the proliferation of slurms and squatter settlerents. The high
[E ' .
incidence of marginal employment and urban povery implies that the poorcannot afford
topayforthousing andurbanservices, withtheresultthattheseservices havedeteriorated
furlher.
3. Theweakfinancialandorganatbnalbaseof urban ocalbodies has ledto subsidised and
inequitable supply of urban land and services, and to haphazard growth. The lack of
effectivecontrolof changes inhand-usehasencouragedunplanned andoftenillegalurban
sprawl, while inadequate control of population has led to contamination of the urban
environmbnrt.
The deterioration of the urban environment can be understood in the following way:
a) inadequatenatural resourcesforhumanexistence and urban economicactivitiesand and
b) wastes generated by households, industries, etc disposed in a manner that is noot
environmentallysound.
More specifically, urban environmental problems include:
* high levels of water pollution on account of poor waste disposal, inadequate sewerage and
drainage and improper disposal of industrial effluents.
= high levels of air pollution resulting from congested streets, poorly maintained vehicles, fuel
btuming, and industrial activities.
- toxic or hazardous industrial and commercial wastes disposed in water bodies and land sites
wihout propertreatmerit.
* dumpingof solid waste (refuse) in low-lying areascontrbutingto land andgroundwaterpolution.
'high levels of noise pollution due to budspeakers, construction, traffic, industrial operations and
aircraft.
* congested and insanitary dwellings, particularly in slums.
* loss of fragile ecosystems, such as mangroves, agricultural land, vegetation, and open space.
UrbanServics
Thedeterioration inthequalityof theurban environment inthe metropolitan cities ispartly
a consequence of the inadeqtuate urban services such as wastewater collection and treatment,
sanitation, solid waste collection and disposal, and transportation.
Waste Water Collection and Treatment
In 1978theCentral Pollution Control Boardwonducteda surveydof he statusofwatersuuply
and wastewatergeneration,collecfion andtreatment anddisposal in respectof thethen 21 2Class
I cities. Treatment capacity was almost non-eixstent outside the metropolitan centres. The sludy
came to the following conclusion:
So long as Class I ciies coDninue to discharge their wastewater untreated into the rivers,
lakes, and ponds directly, no improvement of the quality of water courses is possible. The
requirementforeffective water pollution control isto provideforadequate collection,treatment and
disposal of municipal wastwaters.
The situation in Class l1 and smallercities is much worse. Asub-groupon urban municipal
waste management estimated that the invesiment cost of providing collection and disposal of
wastewater in Class I and Class II cities was of the order of Rs.8.000 crores.
Removing and disposing excreta and wastewater is a critical health need. Pools of standing
water can convey enteric diseases and provide breeding grounds ior mosquitoes which spread
tilariasis, malaria and other diseases. There is overwhelming evidencethatthe economic burden
of disease and ill health, which is in largepart of resultof deficiencies in watersupply and sanitation,
isenormous.particularlyforthepoor. Unfortunately.therearefewstudiesthathaveattemptedsuch
valuation, particularly for those living in the slums and sqLuitter settlements.
Asubstantialquantityofwastewater (around 50%) from urban areas is used for rrigation.
While the general concept of reusing waste water is sound, it must be pointed out thal unttreated
orrawsewage could be hazardous especialiy i thereis human contact. But, if the sewageistreated
to remove pathogens, the risk is considerably reduced. Also, as cities grow in terms of land area,
the extent of land available for irrigation decreases while the volume of wastewater increases.
Reuse of wastewaler enther for industry or agricuftureihorticulture will become a necessity. The
economics of treatment and reuse needs to be examined carefully.
SolidWaste
Solid waste collection is a servicethe importance of which increases as urban population
and population density rises; also, when household incomes increase, there is a corresponding
increase in the volume of waste material generated. In metropolitan cities, there are three major
categories of solid wastes:
1. Domestic solid wastes (refuse) from households, restaurants, marriage-halls etc.
2 I Commercial and industrial solid wastes thal are bulky but not hazardous.
3 Hazardous wastes from industries, hospitals, research laboratories that need special
handling.
In manycities, allthesecategoriesof wastesget mixed upcausingdisposal problemsand
posing a hazard to sanitary or conservancy workers.
Domestic solid wastes in Indiancitiesgenerally have a (a) high organicmattercontent (b)
high water content and (c) low calorilc value. Often the silica content is also high. Unlike wslem
countriesthe amount ofcombustible matterlike paper, rags, etcisvery low. Consequernly, garbage
can be disposed by cornposting or deposited in sanitary landfills, rather than by incineration.
However, compost plants have to be located in areas where the compost can be utilised for
agriculturalppurposeswith minimumcosttothefarmers. Shreddingandpelletizationmaybesuitable
for certain bulky wastes.
The peesent practice in many cities o1 dumping the solid waste in low-lying areas must be
stopped because it causes various environmental problems, pollutes the ground water, creates a
breading ground fordisease vectors such as rats, pigs, and mosquitoes, and emits and offensive
odour over a wide area. The solid waste must be disposed either by compositing or deposited in
a sanitary landfill.
The collection of garbage has also posed a number of problens to the mLunicipal agencies
because householdsdornotseparatedryfrom welwastes. Peopleareunawareaboutenvironmental
sanitation and the hazards of exposed garbage.Thereisa growing recognition that neighbourhood
level garbage collection, managed in collaboration with the residents, is often the cheapest and
most effective solution. This is particularly true if there is reclamation of the wastes through
compositing orothermeans al the neighbourhood level. Similarly, the rag pickers havean irTpoltant
role to play in recycling wastes. Recycling also helps to separate the dry wastes from the
compostable organic matter.
The constituents of domestic wastes that are often recycled include paper for recycled
paper;textiles frpaper-making, wipers; metals forDre-smelting; glassforrecycledglass; rubberfor
downgraded use; plastics for lowergrade products.
Avery activesecondary market existsforrecyclingthese scrap materials. Furtherstudies
need to be conducted on the structure of these markets, and the economics of recycring. The
general impression is that recycling is avery lucrative business, but this needs to be investigated.
Housing
The estimates of the numberof people living in slums varies considerably becausethe
definitionof aslumitsellvaries.The NationalCommnissionon Urbanisationhasusedthetermslum
to mean buildings and areas that are environmentally and structurally defcient. Slums include
illegalsquattersettlemnentsaswelasold,decayinginner-cityareas.Theproportionof peopleliving
in slumsis estimatedtobearound23percentof theurbanpopulation. Inthe metropoliancitiesthe
percentage is around 31 percent, and higher in the four mega-cities.
The Planning Commission has estimated thal about 48.8 million people are lving in urban
*~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ I
slums. About40 percent oltheslum population (i.e. about 20 million) live inthe metropolitancities.
Slum improvement and sites-and-services projects havebeen undertaken in most odthe metros
with intemational assistance.
The environmental effects of living in slums are manifold. Diseases like tuberculosis,
rmeningitis and influenza aretransrirned easily in crowded, crampedconditionscoupled bythefact
that resistance is bw. Mumps, measles, and gastro-enteric diseases are also prevalent posing a
grave risk to infants, children and the aged. The inant rnortaliy rate in the bustees of Delhi was
221 per 1000 lve births, which is nearly fourtimesthe average ratefor lndia'surbanpopulationof
59. Household accidentsfromfires, stovesand householdchemicalsare often higherincrowded
housing.
The use of interior fuels like wood, waste material, coal and cowdung in small dwelings
withinadequateventilation resuh inenhancedindoorlevelsofcarbonmronoxide,nitrogen dioxide.
suspended particulates and hydrocarbons. A study of low-income areas in Bombay showed that
therewas significantly highernmorbidity among thosewith poor nutrition, particularly inthepresence
of high levels of pollution.
Transport
The increase in population in the metropolitan cities has also placed a severe burden on
transportfacilities. Publictransport systems-road and rail-arefairlygood inthe megacities butthey
havebecomesaturated, withthe resultthatthere has been anexplosivegrowth in privatevehicles,
particularlytwowheelers.
It has been the experience in many cities that the provision o1 pubictransportto outlying
towns and suburdan areas spurs rapid growth along the transport corrdors. Complementarty
between road and rail transport, and properpricing are policy measuresthat have bearing on the
extent of use of different modes of transport.
The pollution from motorized vehicles-in terms of both air and noise is reaching crisis
proportions in the megacities. Delhi and Bombay now require emission testing of vehicles. Other
metropolitan cities must also follow their example.
Extracts lrom study for the EAP conducted by Madras Institute of Development
Studies, Madras.
APPENDIX - IX
"ALTERNATIVE ENERGY ACTION PLAN"'
The energy sectorin India hasgrown rapidly. Bythe endoltheSeventh Plan,the percapita
energy consumption was equivalent to around 225 Kg. of oil. Consider other indicators. The
generating capacity bythe end of Seventh Plan was 69082 MW. The total electricitygeneration in
1991 -92wasabout312billionkwh.Theproductionof coalin 19911-92wasabout229miiliontonnes.
Theproductionofcrudeoil in 1991-92was30.34 miliontonnesandimportwas24.00milliontonnes.
The current production of natural gas is about 16 billion m3per year.
During the Eighth Plan the major concem is to reduce the gap between the supply and
demand. Energy will continue to be in the public sector. Private sector participation in power
generation is welcome but is not the primary goal. While there is a clear target for hydel, (40 per
cent of installed capacity) the policies of encouraging renewables, energyconservation, etc. do not
get translated into specific goals. Concepts like sustainable development, do not yet form the basis
of planning for want of techniques, methods and operational definitions of the concept. The
enormous strain under which the expansion has been taking place recently, has not permitted
energy sector organizations to attain levels of efliciency that might bring about optimal use of
resourcesattheircommand. The main issues intheenergysectorarean absenceof an integrated
long-term energy policyfo;thecountry, lack of rational pricing ol energy supply, increasing foreign
exchange outilows, low levels of useful energy availability, increasing energy demand, and low
efficiencies of utilization. Some of the specific concems are briefly mentioned below:
The losses of the State Electricity Boards have been mounting year after year, with the
result that they continue to burden the state exchequerto an increasing degree.
- Given anexcessivecontrololtariffsandtariff setting bytheGovemment, electriciyprices
continue to remain irrational, and therefore do not provide economic incentives for
efficiency improvements.
Agrowing scarciy of capital resources andthe dominant roleof the public sectorhas made
it difficult for the energy sector to receive the benefis of private linancing or innovative
managerial skills. It appears obvious at this stagethat a continuation of past trends in this
regard may not be satisfactory.
- Increasing oil imports result ingreaterforeign exchangeoutflows. Altemativestrategies for
sustainabledevelopmentdo exist, however, in principle.Thesedepend heavilyon energy
conservatior, and renewable energy utilization. The potential forthese is alsosignificant.
There is scope for reducing 20-30 percent in energy consumption in industries, agricultural
pumpsets, domestic appliances etc. Hence, it is apparent that by suitable utilization of
energy eonservation methods and renewable energytechnrdobgies, itshould bepossible
to achieve the goals of sustainable development, viz. reduction of energy consumption
and reduction in emissions all around. The major constraints for implementing such
policies are (i) availability oftechnology (ii) availabilityof capital (iii) instdutional constraints
and (iv) pricing constraints.
Strategies
The effects of the following two strategies on the energy situation in the country are
examined:
1. Improvingtheefficiencyof energyproduction,conversion anduse; managementofenergy
demand and encouraging technology/process changes;
2. Moving towards more environmentally benign energy forms i.e. the greater use of
renewable energy resources.
These strategies &ve mutually exclusive. The measures for improving the efficiency of
energy use and greater use of renewable energy resources are summarized in the foltowing
sections. The costs associated with various development strategies to the year 2009W10 include:
direct economic costs associated with the production and supply of various energy
sources;
direct measures; and
environmental costs associated with energy supply and demand management.
In evaluating the current govemment strategy, demand side investments are used as
reference level and only supply side investments are considered. For the akemative strategies,
incremental investment requirements for supply and energy demand measures overthe current
govemment strategy are taken into account.
Programmes and Projects
Broadly, these represent either studies needed to develop larger programmes, strength-
ening on-going programmes or new programmes. One studythat is needed is an evaluation of the
policyinstruments availablewiththegovemmenttobnngaboutimrprovements in energyefficiency
and to move towards the natioral objectives of sustainable development.
This would be a futuristic study within the framework of sustainable development forthe
country's large population. It would involve an examination of lifestyles and resource needs in the
context of the large population. Such an exercise would lead to the development of a long term
energypolicyandwill provide a framework forevaluatingthepolicy instruments. Impoltantaffong
thesewouldbetheimpactofcurrentenergypricingonenergyefriciency,energydemandandenergy
mix. Such a studycould propose a rational pricing of energy supply and examinethe implications
such a policy would haveon different sectors of theeconomy.Theconstraints it he implementation
of these measures need to be addressed to see the efficacy of available policy instruments.
Extracts from study for the EAP conducted by the Tata Energy Research Institute,
New Delhi.
APPENDIX - X
CHANGING CONSUMPTION PATTERNS OF ENERGY IN INDIA
Deterioration oftheenvironmrent is atributed totheuunsustainable pattem of consumption
and produclion. Environmentalstress can be best reducedthroughpatterns of consumption which
while meeting the needs of humanity will ensure that ecological balances will not be irretrievably
damagedand enwronmeniseriously impaired. Environmentalqualky andsustainabledevebpment
will require efficiency in production and changes in consumption pattems in order to emphasize
optimisation of resource use and minimisation of waste. Significant changes in consumption and
production patterns will occur only when the stimnulus of prices and market signals would make it
cleartoproducersandconsumerstheenvironmental costsofthe consumption of energy, materials
and natural resources and the generation of wastes. The combined efforts of the govemment,
consumers and producers will be able to achieve this objective.
Somne schools of thought in India have stressed the need for a system of lifestyle which
blends harmoniously wih Nature. In this, they have argued againstthe consumeristiclifestyle and
have sought to limit the resource use to the bare minimum and have advocated action militating
against generation of waste. Nevertheless, as a society, the rdestyles in India are not completely
differern to othersocieties. There hasto be increasing consciousness in deciding onconsumption
pattem which should inform every segment of the society that a non-moderated consumption
pattem can have enormnous environmental costs.
It is not as though that the consumption patterns prevalent of those with low per capita
income levels could in the long run be considered compatible with environment conservation and
preservation. However, economic policies should support consumption of environmental friendly
materials. The Govemment of India has been, in several ways, creating an awareness for
moderation of demand and adoption of a consumption pattem which wou!d not leave deleterious
impact on the environment. This is in conformity with the stress that Mahatma Gandhi had laid on
the kind of society that this country should build.
In Indiatheexpenditureelastictyof fueland right hasbeenobservedtobe1 .25forthe non-
poor-middlegroupin urban areas. Forthe pooritisintherangeof 0.80toO.87. Butifpricecorrections
aremadeforthesubsidiesgivenforelectricityandkerosene,theexpendkureelasticityof thepoor
forfuel and light will be more than one. Thus, the process of development is raising sharply the
consumption of household energy.
It isimperativethat importance isgiventodevelopnon-conventional orrenewablesources
of energyforsustaining thedevelopmentprocess. Sun, wind, waterand bio-mass are renewabie,
perennial,dependable and widelyavailablesourcesof energy. Generationand utilisationof energy
from renewable energy sources is non-polluting and envmronmentally benign. Non-conventional
sourcesofenergyhave gottremendous potential. Accordingtoavailablestatisticaldataourcouratry
is supposed to accumulate every year 300 million tonnes of agro residues. On a conservative
assessment wind power potential in the country is around 20,000 M.W. The total wave power
potential from Ocean energy along India!s 1600 kmn coastal line is 40,000 M.W.
Themajorprogrammesbornewand renewable sourcesof energywhich weredeveloped
and enlargeddudngthe Seventh Planincludedthenationalprojectonbio-gasdevelopmrent, national
programme of improved chulhas. solar, thermal energy utilisation, Solar Photo Vo5taics, wind
energy and corversion of bio-mass into energy, energy plantation and bio-mass gasifers.
The Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources are undertaking a large number of
programmestoacceleratesocio-ewonomicdevelopment,socialwellare,environmentalupgradation
andconservation and overall improvement in thequalityo1 fife. Rs activities are targettedto achieve
transfer of technoalgy to benefit the rural and urban masses and also to provide linkages with
commerce and industry. The estimated potential ot various types of renewable sources of energy
in India is given below:
SOURCE POTENTIAL
Biogas Plants 12 Million
Biomass 17000M.W.
ImprovedChulhas 120 Million
SolarEnergy 5xlOl5KWhr/year
Mini-MicroHydro 5000M.W.
WindEnergy 20,000M.W.
Totapthe abovepotentialtheMinistryof Non-Conventional Energy Sources popularises
variousprogrammessuchasbiogas, solarwaterheatersbothfordomesticandindustrialpurposes,
wind farms, improved chulhas etc. and provides financial assistance and subsidies in varying
degrees and fiscal concessions in the form of tax rebate, duty exemption etc.
Significant progress was achieved in the generation of electric power from Solar Photo
Voltaics for lighting and pumping systems, mico-hydel schemes, gassifers based on wood and
agriculural waste and wind generation, including wind farms and 'stand alone' wind turbines. The
cotributionofrenewableenergyin meetingthetotalenergyneedsofthecountryhasbeenrmarginal.
A beginning has been made in the production of power from decentralised energy sources
particularly wind energy and Solar Photo Voltaics, although their overall contribution in the total
power supply is mirimal. The wind energy programme is still dependent on imported technology.
Efforts have to be intensified to develop indigenous capabilities in this area. Despite enormous
potential and obvious advantages in remote, hilly areas, little progress has been made in area of
mico-whydel power supply. This source can supply cheap energy to rural areas.
Concerted efforts have to be made in the coming yearstoovercornetheabove mentioned
problems in the New Renewable Sources of Energy (NRSE) programme particularly inthe area of
technologydevelopmert, intensificationof R&D and thecommercial explitation and promotion of
theviabletechnologies.
An estimated amount of Rs. 1000 crores will be requjired to give a thrust to the folowing
programmes for new and renewable sources of energy:
rapid diffusion of technobgy that have already matured through successhfl stages of
development with a particular emphasis on application to rural areas;
demonstration of the usefulness of technobgy which has reached a stage of technical
readinessawaiting furthercost-reduction especiallythroughvoh me production and market
penetration;
promotion of research on promising technologies that are likely to become successful for
large scale use in the lng term;
intensive monitoringandevaluation,bothdepartmentalyandthroughoutsideagencies.of
the operational programmes and adapting improvement and corrective measures as
required.
APPENDIX - Xl
"ENVIRONMENTIMPACTASSESSMENr*
Theconceplof Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA)wasintroduced inthedevebped
countrieswhen it was realized that developmental activities can cause serious degradation ofthe
environment. ElAasatoolestablishesthechanges inthe physical, ecological and socieconomic
componentsof the environment before,during and afteraproposed developmenla;project, sothal
lhe undesirable effects, if any, can be mitigated.
In India, ElAwas made mandatory, relatively, as compared to othercountries. However,
since its initiation several hundreds of EIA documents have been produced and processed.
Obviously, the subject will grow rapidly in the future, there is an urgent need now for an in-depth
study of the EIA process, policies and methodobgies so that it can be implemented effectively.
Problem Areas
Some of the problems associated with EIA which emerged from the study of the IIT,
Bombay, are as follows:
Information and Baseline Data:
A reliable and comprehensive environmental data base in the country does not exist.
Transfer of the data to the user is also a serious problemn.
Predictive Techniques:
Devebpment, validafion, standardization andtraining in enviromnental prediction models
isrequired.
* Evaluation Techniques:
These involve enormous subjectivity and are not satisfac.orily develuped.
* Time factor in EIA
Oneof the majorlimitationof ElAis extensivetimeand data requiremerns, andthesehave
to be reduced.
* Post Project Monhoring:
Currently, EIA is considered only as a procedural requirement to get clearance. Subse-
quent surveillance is seldom conducted.
* H}~~~~~~~~
*Education, Training and Research:
There is a lack of appropriate interdisciplinary expertise in EIA and training is needed at
various levels and sectors.
* Public Participation.
This has lo be eflectively incorporated in the EIA process so that constnrctive contribu-
tions can be made.
Policy Directives
It is well recognized that EIA should be made mandatory to achieve sustainable growth.
The environmental implications in the development process have to be inked at the national,
regional and individual projects level. The policy directives in orderto achievethis elfectively are
as follows:
*Standardizationof Methodology
' Guidelines for EIA Developmental Projects
* Review Process at State and National Levels
'National Environmental Plan
Action Plans and Projects for Assistance
The study that lhere are major limitations in the planning, as well as technical and
implementation procedures for EIA. The action plans identified to meet the future needs are as
follows:
e Compilation of EIA Documents
*Training and Development Projects
*lnstitutional Building and Strengthening
Extracts from study for the Environment Action Programme conducted by the Centre
for Environmental Sciences and Engineering, IIT, Bombay.
* )
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ACRONYMS
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ACRONYMS4
ACRP AGRO-CLIMATICREGIONALPLANNINGAPPROACH
AL ALUMINIUM
BCIL BIO-TECHNOLOGYCONSORTIUMINDIAUMITED
BMTPC BUILDING MATERIALSANDTECHNOLOGY PPOMOTION COUNCIL
BNHS BOMBAYNATURALHISTORYSOCIETY
BOD BIO-CHEMICALOXYGENDEMAND
BSI BOTANICAL SURVEYOF INDIA
CADP COMMANDAREADEVELOPMENTPROGRAMME
CBR CRUDE BIRTH RATES
CEE CENTRE FOR ENVIRONMENT EDUCATION
CGs CrrTZENSGROUPS
CITES CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONALTRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECES
CO CARBONMONOXIDE
COD CHEMICALOXYGENDEMAND
CPCB CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD
CPR C.P. RAMASWAMYAIYERENVIRONMENTEDUCATION
ENVIRONMENT CENTRE
EDUCATION
CENTRE
CNG COMPRESSEDNATURALGAS
CSIR COUNCIL FOR SCIENTIFIC AND INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH
DDP DESERTDEVELOPMENTPROGRAMME
DFL CURRENCY OF THE NETHERLANDS
DO DISSOLVEDOXYGEN
DPAP DROUGHT PRONE AREA PROGRAMME
EAP ENVIRONMENTACTIONPROGRAMME
EC EUROPEAN COMMUNrlY
EE ENVIRONMENTEDUCATION
EIA ENVIRONMENTIMPACTASSESSMENT
EIS ENVIRONMENTALINFORMATIONSYSTEM
EPCO ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION&COORDINATIONAGENCY
EPTRI ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION &TRAINING RESEARCHINSTITUTE
ETP EFFLUENTTREATMENTPLANTS
FAO FOOD&AGRICULTURALORGANISATION
FSI FORESTSURVEYOFINDIA
G.B.PANT INST. GOVIND BALLABH PANT INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRON-
FORHIMALAYAN MENT& DEVELOPMENT
ENVIRONMENT
&DEVELOPMENT
GCA GENERALCURRENCYAREA
GEF GLOBALENVIRONMENTALFACILNfY
GHG GREEN HOUSE GASES
GS GEOGRAPHICALINFORMATIONSYSTEMS
GNP GROSSNATIONALPRODUCT
GOI GOVERNMENTOF INDIA
ha HECTARES
HC HYDROCARBONS
HRD HUMANRESOURCESDEVELOPMENT
HSM HAZARDOUSSUBSTANCESMANAGEMENT
ICFRE INDIAN COUNCIL FOR FORESTRY RESEARCH . EDUCATION
IAMOD INTERNATIONALCENTREFOR INTEGRATEDMOUNTAINDEVELOPMENT
ICOR INCREMENTALCAPITAL-OUTPUTRATIO
IDBI INDUSTRIALDEVELOPMENTBANKOFINDIA
IGCP INDIRAGANDHI CANALPROJECT
aGIDR INDIRAGANDHI INSTITUTE FOR DEVELOPMENT RESEARCH
IGNFA INDIRAGANDHI NATIONAL FORESTACADEMY
JIFM INDIAN INSTITUTE OF FOREST MANAGEMENT
IIPA INDIAN INSTITUTEOFPUBLICADMINISTRATION
IIT INDIANINSTITUTMEOFTECHNOLOGY
IMR INFANTMORTALITYRATE
INT. INTERMEDIATES
IPCL INDIAN PETRO-CHEMICALLIMITED
IRDP INTEGRATEDRURALDEVELOPMENTPROGRAMME
IREP INTEGRATED RURAL ENERGY PROGRAMME
IVCOL INDIANVACCINECORPORATIONLIMITED
MAB MANANDBIO-SPHERE
MAP MANAGEMENTACTIONPLAN
MIDS MADRASINSTITUTEOFDEVELOPMENTSTUDIES
MNAS MINIMALNATIONALSTANDARDS
MLD MILLION LITRES PER DAY
MOEF MINISTRYOF ENVIRONMENT&FORESTS
MRTPA MONOPOLIES& RESTRICTIVE TRADE PRACTICES ACT
MT.OE. MILLIONTONNESOFOILEOUIVALENT
NAAOM NATIONALAMBIENTAIROUALITYMONITORING
NAEB NATIONALAFFORESTATIONANDECO-DEVELOPMENTBOARD
NCERT NATIONALCOMMISSION ON EDUCATK)N RESEARCH &TRAINING
NCR NATIONAICAPITAL REGION
NEED NATIONAL ECONOMIC-ECOLOGY DATA BASE
NEERI NATIONALENVIRONMENTALENGINEERING RESEARCH INSTITUTE
NFAP NATIONALFORESTRYACTIONPROGRAMME
NGOs NON-GOVERNMENTALORGANISATIONS
NMNH NATIONAL MUSEUM FOR NATURALHISTORY
NO OXIDESOFNITROGEN
NO, NITROGENDI-OXIDE
NOK CURRENCYOFNORWAY
NPE NATIONAL POLICYON EDUCATION
NRA NATURAL RESOURCES ACCOUNTING
NRAP NATIONALRrVER ACTION PROGRAMME
NREP NATIONALRURALEMPLOYMENTPROGRAMME
NRSE NEW & RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY
NSFP NATIONALSOCIALFORESTRYPROJECT
NWDB NATIONALWASTELANDSDEVELOPMENTBOARD
NWMP NATIONALWATERSHEDMANAGEMENTPROJECT
OECF OVERSEASECONOMICCOOPRATION FUND
ODA OVERSEASDEVELOPMENTAGENCY
O&M OPERATIONS&MAINTENANCE
R&D RESEARCH&DEVELOPMENT
R&M RESEARCH&MANAGEMENT
RLEGP RURALLANDLESSEMPLOYMENTGENERATIONPROGRAMME
PCRI POLLUTION CONTROL RESEARCH INSTITUTE
SAARC SOUTHASIANASSOCIATIONFOR REGIONALCOOPERATION
SACEP SOUTH ASIAN COOPERATION FOR ENVIRONMLNTPROGRAMME
SACON SALIM ALICENTRE FOR ORNITHOLOGY & NATURALHISTORY
SCP SUSTAINABLECMESPROGRAMME
SEB STATE ELECTRICffYBOARDS
SEEA SYSTEMFORINTEGRATEDENVIRONMENTAL& ECONOMICACCOMUNTING
SEK CURRENCY OF SWEDEN
v SIDA SWEDISHINTERNATIONALDEVELOPMENTAGENCY
SFS COLLEGES STATE FORESTSERVICESCOLLEGES
SNA SYSTEMOFNATIONALACCOUNTS
SO, SULPHUR DI-OXIDE
SPCB STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDS
SPM SUSPENDED PARTICULATE MATTER
SSI SMALL SCALE INDUSTRIES
SRS SAMPLE REGISTRATION SYSTEM
TERI TATA ENERGY RESEARCH INSTITUTE
TFR TOTALFERTILTY RATE
TIFAC TECHNOLOGY INFORMATION, FORECASTING AND ASSESSEMENT
COUNCIL
TPD TONNES PER DAY
TRYSEM TRAININGOF RURALYOUTH FORSELFEMPLOYMENT
UGC UNIVERSITYGRANTSCOMMISSION
U.K. UNITEDKINGDOM
UN UNITEDNATIONS
UNCED UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT
UNCHS UNITED NATIONS COMMISSION ON HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
UNDP UNITEDNATIONSDEVELOPMENTPROGRAMME
UNEP UNITEDNATIONSENVIRONMENTPROGRAMME
U.S. UNITEDSTATES
VIKSAT VIKRAM SARABHAI CENTRE FOR DEVELOPMENT INTERACTION
WLI WILDLIFE INSTITUTE OF INDIA
Wvo WATERQUALITY
WRI WORLD RESOURCES INSTITI JTE
ZSI ZOOLOGICALSURVEYOFINDIA
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If
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